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3 


THE  MODERN 
WOMAN'S  RIGHTS  MOVEMENT 

A  HISTORICAL  SURVEY 
BY 

DR.   KAETHE  SCHIRMACHER 


TRANSLATED    FROM    THE 
SECOND  GERMAN  EDITION 

BY 

CARL   CONRAD   ECKHARDT,   Ph.D. 

INSTRUCTOR  IN  HISTORY,   UNIVERSITY   OF  COLORADO 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1912 

All  right*  reserved 


0 


Copyright,  1912, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  January,  1913. 


J.  8.  Cushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Maas.,  U.S.A. 


H  (< 


1150 


"  Unterdriickung  ist  gegen  die  menschliche  Natur  " 
"  Oppression  is  opposed  to  human  nature  " 


1403290 


TRANSLATOR'S   NOTE 

Hitherto  there  has  been  no  English  book  giving  a 
history  of  the  woman's  rights  movement  in  all  coun- 
tries of  the  world.  English  and  American  readers  will 
therefore  welcome  the  appearance  of  an  EngUsh  edi- 
tion of  Dr.  Scbirmacher's  "  Die  moderne  Frauenbe- 
wegung."  Since  Dr.  Schirmacher  is  a  German 
woman's  rights  advocate,  actively  engaged  in  propa- 
ganda, her  book  is  not  merely  a  history,  but  a 
political  pamphlet"  as  well.  Although  the  reader  may 
at  times  disagree  with  the  authoress,  he  will  be  inter- 
ested in  her  point  of  view.  ^ 

In  the  chapter  on  the  United  States  I  have  added, 
with  Dr.  Scbirmacher's  consent,  a  number  of  trans- 
lator's footnotes,  showing  what  bearings  the  elections 
of  November,  1910,  and  October,  191 1,  have  had  on 
the  woman's  rights  question.  An  index,  also,  has 
been  added. 

BouLDEK,  Colorado, 
November,  191 1. 


vU 


PREFACE 

The  first  edition  of  this  book  appeared  in  1905. 
That  edition  is  exhausted,  —  an  evidence  of  the  great 
present-day  interest  in  the  woman's  rights  movement. 
This  new  edition  takes  into  account  the  developments 
since  1905,  contains  the  recent  statistical  data,  and 
gives  an  account  of  the  woman's  suffrage  movement 
which  has  been  especially  characteristic  of  these  later 
years.  Wherever  the  statistical  data  have  been  left 
unchanged,  either  there  have  been  no  new  censuses  or 
the  new  results  were  not  available. 

The  facts  contained  in  this  volume  do  not  require 
of  me  any  prefatory  observations  on  the  theoretical 
justification  of  the  woman's  rights  movement.^  From 
the  remotest  time  man  has  tried  to  rule  her  who  ought 
to  be  comrade  and  colleague  to  him.  By  virtue  of  the 
law  of  might  he  generally  succeeded.  Every  protest 
against  this  law  of  might  was  a  "woman's  rights 
movement." 

History  contains  many  such  protests.    The  modern 

'  I  have  discussed  the  theoretical  side  in  a  pamphlet  of  "The  German 
Public  Utility  Association"  {Deutscher  Gemeinniitziger  Verein),  Prague, 
1918  Palackykai. 

iz 


X  PREFACE 

woman's  rights  movement  is  the  first  organized  and 
international  protest  of  this  kind.  Therefore  it  is  a 
movement  full  of  success  and  promise.  Leadership  in 
this  movement  has  fallen  to  the  women  of  the  Cau- 
casian race,  among  whom  the  women  of  the  United 
States  have  been  foremost.  At  their  instigation  were 
formed  the  World's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  the 
International  Council  of  Women,  and  the  International 
Woman's  Suffrage  AlHance. 

^  In  many  lands,  even  in  those  inhabited  by  the 
white  race,  there  are,  however,  only  very  feeble  begin- 
nings of  the  woman's  rights  movement.  In  the 
Orient,  the  Far  East,  and  in  Africa,  woman's  condi- 
tion of  bondage  is  still  almost  entirely  unbroken. 
Nevertheless,  in  these  regions  of  the  world,  too, 
woman's  day  is  dawning  in  such  a  way  that  we  look 
for  developments  more  confidently  than  ever  before. 

In  all  countries  the  woman's  rights  movement  origi- 
nated with  the  middle  classes.  This  is  a  purely  his- 
torical fact  which  in  itself  in  no  way  impHes  any  an- 
tagonism between  the  woman's  rights  movement  and 
the  workingwomen's  movement.  There  is  no  such 
antagonism  either  in  Australia,  or  in  England,  or  in 
the  United  States.  On  the  contrary,  the  middle  class 
and  non-middle  class  movements  are  sharply  separated 
in  those  countries  whose  social  democracy  uses  class- 
hatred  as  propaganda.     Whether  the  woman's  rights 


PREFACE  XI 

movement  is  also  a  workingwomen's  movement,  or 
whether  the  workingwomen's  movement  is  also  a 
woman's  rights  movement  or  socialism,  depends  there- 
fore in  every  particular  case  on  national  and  historical 
circumstances. 

The  international  organization  of  the  woman's  rights 
movement  is  as  follows :  the  International  Coimcil  of 
Women  consists  of  the  presiding  oflBicers  of  the  various 
National  Councils  of  Women.  Of  these  latter  there 
are  to-day  twenty-seven;  but  the  Servian  League  of 
Woman's  Clubs  has  not  yet  joined.^  To  a  National 
Council  may  belong  all  those  woman's  clubs  of  a  coun- 
try which  unite  in  carrying  out  a  certain  general  pro- 
gramme. The  programmes  as  well  as  the  organiza- 
tions are  national  in  their  nature,  but  they  all  agree 
in  their  general  characteristics,  since  the  woman's 
rights  movement  is  indeed  an  international  movement 
and  arose  in  all  countries  from  the  same  general  con- 
ditions. The  first  National  Council  was  organized  in 
the  United  States  in  1888.  This  was  followed  by 
organizations  in  Canada,  Germany,  Sweden,  England, 
Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  Australia  (with  five  coun- 
cils), Switzerland,  Italy,  France,  Austria,  Norway, 
Hungary,  etc. 

'  The  presiding  ofiScers  of  the  International  Council  to  the  present 
time  were :  Mrs.  Wright  Sewall  and  Lady  Aberdeen.  This  year,  June, 
1909,  Lady  Aberdeen  was  reelected. 


Xll 


PREFACE 


As  yet  there  are  no  statistics  of  the  women  repre- 
sented in  the  International  Council.  Its  membership 
is  estimated  at  seven  or  eight  milUons.  The  National 
Council  admits  only  clubs,  —  not  individuals,  —  the 
chairmen  of  the  various  National  Councils  forming  the 
International  Coimcil  of  Women  solely  in  their  capacity 
of  presiding  officers. 

This  International  Council  of  Women  is  the  per- 
manent body  promoting  the  organized  international 
woman's  rights  movement.  It  was  organized  in  Wash- 
ington in  1888. 

The  woman's  suffrage  movement,  a  separate  phase 
of  the  woman's  rights  movement,  has  Ukewise  organ- 
ized itself  internationally,  —  though  independently. 
Woman's  suffrage  is  the  most  radical  demand  made 
by  organized  women,  and  is  hence  advocated  in  all 
countries  by  the  "radical"  woman's  rights  advocates. 
The  greater  part  of  the  membership  of  the  National 
Councils  have  therefore  not  beeii  able  in  all  cases  to 
insert  woman's  suffrage  in  their  programmes.  The 
International  Council  did  sanction  this  point,  however, 
June  9,  1904,  in  BerUn. 

A  few  days  previously  there  had  been  organized  as 
the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance,  likewise 
in  BerUn,  woman's  suffrage  leagues  representing  eight 
different  countries.  The  leagues  which  joined  the 
Alliance  represented  the  United  States,  Victoria,  Eng- 


PREFACE  Xm 

land,  Germany,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  the 
Netherlands.  Since  then  the  woman's  suffrage  move- 
ment has  been  the  most  flourishing  part  of  the  woman's 
rights  movement.  The  International  Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance,  which  was  pledged  to  hold  a  second  congress 
only  at  the  end  of  five  years,  has  already  held  three 
congresses  between  1905  and  1909  (1906,  Copenhagen; 
1908,  Amsterdam;  1909,  London),  and  has  extended 
its  membership  to  twenty-one  countries  (the  United 
States,  AustraUa,  South  Africa,  Canada,  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  the  Nether- 
lands, Finland,  Russia,  Hungary,  Austria,  Bulgaria, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  France,  Belgium,  Servia,  and  Ice- 
land). The  first  president  is  Mrs.  Carrie  Chapman 
Catt. 

The  chief  demands  of  the  woman's  rights  movement 
are  the  same  in  all  countries.  These  demands  are  four 
in  number. 

1.  In  the  field  of  education  and  instruction:  to  en- 
joy the  same  educational  opportunities  as  those  of 
man. 

2.  In  the  field  of  labor:  freedom  to  choose  any 
occupation,  and  equal  pay  for  the  same  work. 

3.  In  the  field  of  civil  law :  the  wife  should  be  given 
the  full  status  of  a  legal  person  before  the  law,  and 
full  civil  ability.  In  criminal  law:  the  repeal  of  all 
regulations  discriminating  against  women.    The  legal 


XIV  PREFACE 

responsibility  of  man  in  sexual  matters.    In  public  law : 
woman's  suffrage. 

4.  In  the  social  field:  recognition  of  the  high  value 
of  woman's  domestic  and  social  work,  and  the  incom- 
pleteness, harshness,  and  one-sidedness  of  every  circle 
of  man's  activity  (Mannerweli)  from  which  woman  is 
excluded. 

A  just  and  happy  relationship  of  the  sexes  is  de- 
pendent upon  mutuaUty,  coordination,  and  the  com- 
plementary relations  of  man  and  woman,  —  not  upon 
the  subordination  of  woman  and  the  predominance  of 
man.  Woman,  in  her  peculiar  sphere,  is  entirely  the 
equal  of  man  in  his.  The  origin  of  the  international 
woman's  rights  movement  is  found  in  the  world-wide 
disregard  of  this  elementary  truth. 

The  subject  which  I  have  treated  in  this  book  is  a 
very  broad  one,  the  material  much  scattered  and  daily 
changing.  It  is  therefore  hardly  possible  that  my 
statements  should  not  have  deficiencies  on  the  one 
hand,  and  errors  on  the  other.  I  shall  indeed  wel- 
come any  corrections  and  authoritative  information  of 
a  supplementary  nature.^ 

THE  AUTHORESS. 

PASIS,  JUNE  3,  1909. 

>  The  report  of  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Congress,  Lon- 
don, May,  1909,  had  not  yet  appeared,  and  the  reader  is  therefore  referred 
to  it. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


FAGB 

Translator's  Note vii 

Preface ix-xiv 


I.  THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES 

The  United  States  of  America 2 

Australia 42 

Great  Britain 58 

Canada 96 

South  Africa 100 

The  Scandinavian  Countries 101-126 

Sweden 103 

Finland no 

Norway 116 

Denmark 122 

The  Netherlands 126 

Switzerland 133 

Germany 143 

Luxemburg 157 

German  Austria 158 

Hungary 169 

II.  THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES 

France 175 

Belgium 190 

Italy 196 

XV 


XVI  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

PACK 

Spain 206 

Portugal 211 

The  Latin-American  Republics  of  Central  and  South 

America 212 

III.  THE  SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES 

Russia 215 

Czechish  Bohemia  and  Moravla 230 

Galicia 232 

The  Slovene  Woman's  Rights  Movement       .        .        .  235 

Servia 236 

bulgarla 239 

Rumania 242 

Greece 242 

IV.  THE  ORIENT  AND  THE  FAR  EAST 

Turkey  and  Egypt 245 

bosnla  and  herzegovina 25o 

Persia 251 

Indla 252 

China 256 

Japan  and  Korea 260 

Conclusion 263 

Index 267 


THE   MODERN 
WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 


THE    MODERN    WOMAN'S 
RIGHTS    MOVEMENT 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES 

The  woman's  rights  movement  is  more  strongly 
organized  and  has  penetrated  society  more  thoroughly 
in  all  the  Germanic  countries  than  in  the  Romance 
countries.  There  are  many  causes  for  this:  woman's 
greater  freedom  of  activity  in  the  Germanic  countries ; 
the  predominance  of  the  Protestant  religion,  which 
does  not  oppose  the  demands  of  the  woman's  rights 
movement  with  the  same  united  organization  as  does 
the  Catholic  Church ;  the  more  vigorous  training  in 
self-reliance  and  responsibility  which  is  customarily 
given  to  women  in  Germanic-Protestant  countries ;  the 
more  significant  superiority  in  numbers  of  women  in 
Germanic  countries,  which  has  forced  women  to  adopt 
business  or  professional  callings  other  than  domestic.^ 

•  Their  inferiority  in  numbers  (in  Australia  and  in  the  western  states 
of  the  United  States)  has,  however,  often  served  their  cause  in  just  the 
same  way. 

B  I 


2        THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  woman's  rights  movement  in  the  Germanic- 
Protestant  countries  has  been  promoted  by  moral  and 
economic  factors. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

Total  population :  91,972,267. 
Women:  about  45,000,000. 
Men :  about  47,000,000. 

The  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs. 

The  National  American  Woman's  Suffrage  Association. 

North  America  is  the  cradle  of  the  woman's  rights 
movement.  It  was  the  War  of  Independence  of  the 
colonies  against  England  (i 774-1 783)  that  matured 
the  woman's  rights  movement.  In  the  name  of  "free- 
dom" our  cause  entered  the  history  of  the  world. 

In  these  troubled  times  the  American  women  had  by 
energetic  activities  and  unyielding  suffering  entirely 
fulfilled  their  duty  as  citizens,  and  at  the  Convention 
in  Philadelphia,  in  1787,  they  demanded  as  citizens 
the  right  to  vote.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  was  being  drawn  up  at  that  time,  and  by  1789 
had  been  ratified  by  the  thirteen  states  then  existing. 
In  nine  of  these  states  (Connecticut,  Delaware,  Georgia, 
Maryland,  New  Jersey,  North  and  South  Carolina, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Rhode  Island)  the  right  to  vote  in 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  3 

municipal  and  state  affairs  had  hitherto  been  exer- 
cised by  all  "free-born  citizens"  or  all  "taxpayers" 
and  "heads  of  families,"  the  state  constitutions  being 
based  on  the  principle :  no  taxation  without  representa- 
tion. 

Among  these  "free-born  citizens,"  "taxpayers,"  and 
"heads  of  families"  there  were  naturally  many  women 
who  were  consequently  both  voters  and  active  citi- 
zens. So  woman's  right  to  vote  in  the  above-named 
states  was  practically  established  before  1783.  Only 
the  states  of  Virginia  and  New  York  had  restricted  the 
suffrage  to  males  in  1699  and  1777,  Massachusetts  and 
New  Hampshire  following  their  example  in  1780  and 
1784. 

In  view  of  this  retrograde  movement  American 
women  attempted  at  the  Convention  in  Philadelphia 
to  secure  a  recognition  of  their  civil  rights  through  the 
Constitution  of  the  whole  federation  of  states.  But 
the  Convention  refused  this  request;  just  as  before, 
it  left  the  conditions  of  suffrage  to  be  determined  by 
the  individual  states.  To  be  sure,  in  the  draft  of  the 
Constitution  the  Convention  in  no  way  opposed  woman's 
suffrage.  But  the  nine  states  which  formerly,  as  colo- 
nies, had  practically  given  women  the  right  to  vote, 
had  in  the  meantime  abrogated  this  right  through  the 
insertion  of  the  word  "man"  in  their  election  laws, 
and  the  first  attempt  of  the  American  women  to  secure 


4       THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

an  expressed  constitutional  recognition  of  their  rights 
as  citizens  failed. 

These  proceedings  gave  to  the  woman's  rights  move- 
ment of  the  United  States  a  poHtical  character  from 
the  very  beginning.  Since  then  the  American  women 
have  labored  untiringly  for  their  poHtical  emancipa- 
tion. The  anti-slavery  movement  gave  them  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  participate  in  pubUc  affairs. 

Since  the  women  had  had  experience  of  oppression 
and  slavery,  and  since  they,  like  negroes,  were  strug- 
gling for  the  recognition  of  their  "human  rights," 
they  were  amongst  the  most  zealous  opponents  of 
"slavery,"  and  belonged  to  the  most  enthusiastic 
defenders  of  "freedom"  and  "justice." 

Among  the  Quakers,  who  played  a  very  prominent 
part  in  the  anti-slavery  movement,  man  and  woman 
had  the  same  rights  in  all  respects  in  the  home  and 
church.  When  the  first  anti-slavery  society  was  formed 
in  Boston  in  1832,  twelve  women  immediately  became 
members. 

The  principle  of  the  equaUty  of  the  sexes,  which  the 
Quakers  held,  was  opposed  by  the  majority  of  the 
population,  who  held  to  the  Puritanic  principle  of 
woman's  subordination  to  man.  In  consequence  of 
this  principle  it  was  at  that  time  considered  "mon- 
strous" that  a  woman  should  speak  from  a  pubUc 
platform.    Against  Abby  Kelly,  who  at  that  time  was 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  5 

one  of  the  best  anti-slavery  speakers,  a  sermon  was 
preached  from  the  pulpit  from  the  text :  "This  Jezebel 
has  come  into  the  midst  of  us."  She  was  called  a 
"hyena";  it  was  related  that  she  had  been  intoxi- 
cated in  a  saloon,  etc.  When  her  political  associate, 
Angelina  Grimke,  held  an  anti-slavery  meeting  in 
Pennsylvania  Hall  (Philadelphia)  in  1837,  the  hall  was 
set  on  fire,  and  in  1838  in  the  chamber  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  in  Massachusetts  a  mob  threatened 
to  take  her  life.  "The  mob  howled,  the  press  hissed, 
and  the  pulpit  thimdered,"  thus  the  proceedings  were 
described  by  Lucy  Stone,  the  woman's  rights  advo- 
cate. 

Even  the  educated  classes  shared  the  prejudice 
against  woman.  To  them  she  was  a  "human  being 
of  the  second  order."  The  following  is  an  illustration 
of  this : 

In  1840  Abby  Kelly  was  elected  to  a  committee. 
She  was  urged,  however,  to  decUne  the  election.  "If 
you  regard  me  as  incompetent,  then  I  shall  leave." 
"Oh,  no,  not  exactly  that,"  was  the  answer.  "Well, 
what  is  it  then?"  "But  you  are  a  woman  .  .  ." 
"That  is  no  reason;  therefore  I  remain." 

In  the  same  year  an  anti-slavery  congress  was  held 
in  England.  A  number  of  American  champions  of  the 
cause  went  to  London,  —  among  them  three  women, 
Lucretia  Mott,  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  and  Elizabeth 


6       THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Pease.  They  were  accompanied  by  their  husbands 
and  came  as  delegates  of  the  "National  Anti-slavery 
Society."  Since  the  Congress  was  dominated  by  the 
English  clergy,  who  persisted  in  their  belief  in  the 
"inferiority"  of  woman,  the  three  American  women, 
being  creatures  without  political  rights,  were  not  per- 
mitted to  perform  their  duties  as  delegates,  but  were 
directed  to  leave  the  convention  hall  and  to  occupy 
places  in  the  spectators'  gallery.  But  the  noble  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  silently  registered  a  protest  by  sitting 
with  the  women  in  the  gallery. 

This  procedure  clearly  indicated  to  the  American 
women  what  their  next  duty  should  be,  and  once  when 
Lucretia  Mott  and  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  came  from 
the  gallery  to  the  hotel  Mrs.  Stanton  said,  "The  first 
thing  which  we  must  do  upon  our  return  is  to  call  a 
convention  to  discuss  the  slavery  of  woman." 

This  plan,  however,  was  not  executed  till  eight 
years  later.  At  that  time  EHzabeth  Cady  Stanton,  on 
the  occasion  of  a  visit  from  Lucretia  Mott,  summoned 
a  number  of  acquaintances  to  her  home  in  Seneca 
Falls,  New  York.  In  giving  an  accoimt  of  the  meet- 
ing at  Washington,  in  1888,  at  the  Conference  of 
Pioneers  of  the  International  Council  of  Women  (see 
Report,  pp.  323,  324),  she  states  that  she  and  Lucretia 
Mott  had  drawn  up  the  grievances  of  woman  under 
eighteen  headings  with  the  American  Declaration  of 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  7 

Independence  as  a  model,  and  that  it  was  her  wish  to 
submit  a  suffrage  resolution  to  the  meeting,  but  that 
Lucretia  Mott  herself  refused  to  have  it  presented. 

Nevertheless,  in  the  meeting  Elizabeth  Cady  Stan- 
ton herself,  burning  with  enthusiasm,  introduced  her 
resolution  concerning  woman's  right  to  vote,  and,  as 
she  reports,  the  resolution  was  adopted  unanimously. 
A  few  days  later  the  newspaper  reports  appeared. 
"There  was,"  relates  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  "not  a 
single  paper  from  Maine  to  Louisiana  which  did  not 
contain  our  Declaration  of  Independence  and  present 
the  matter  as  ludicrous.  My  good  father  came  from 
New  York  on  the  night  train  to  see  whether  I  had  lost 
my  mind.  I  was  overwhelmed  with  ridicule.  A  great 
number  of  women  who  signed  the  Declaration  with- 
drew their  signatures.  I  felt  very  much  humiliated, 
so  much  the  more,  since  I  knew  thai  I  was  right.  .  .  . 
For  all  that  I  should  probably  have  allowed  myself  to 
be  subdued  if  I  had  not  soon  afterward  met  Susan  B. 
Anthony,  whom  we  call  the  Napoleon  of  our  woman's 
suffrage  movement." 

Susan  B.  Anthony,  the  brave  old  lady,  who  in  spite 
of  her  eighty-three  years  did  not  dread  the  long  journey 
from  the  United  States  to  Berlin,  and  in  June,  1904, 
attended  the  meetings  of  the  International  Council  of 
Women  and  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage 
AUiance,  was  in  early  Ufe  a  teacher  in  Rochester,  New 


8       THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

York,  and  participated  in  the  temperance  movement. 
She  had  assisted  in  securing  twenty-eight  thousand 
signatures  to  a  petition,  providing  for  the  regulation  of 
the  sale  of  alcohol,  which  was  presented  to  the  New 
York  State  Legislature.  Susan  B.  Anthony  was  in 
the  gallery  during  the  discussion  of  the  petition,  and 
as  she  saw  how  one  speaker  scornfully  threw  the 
petition  to  the  floor  and  exclaimed,  "Who  is  it  that 
demands  such  laws?  They  are  only  women  and 
children  .  .  .  ,"  she  vowed  to  herself  that  she  would 
not  rest  content  until  a  woman's  signature  to  a  petition 
should  have  the  same  weight  as  that  of  a  man.  And 
she  faithfully  kept  her  word.  After  a  life  of  unceasing 
and  unselfish  work,  Susan  B.  Anthony  died  March  13, 
1906,  loved  and  esteemed  by  all  who  knew  her.  At 
the  commemoration  services  in  1907,  twenty-four 
thousand  dollars  were  subscribed  for  the  Susan  B. 
Anthony  Memorial  Fund  (to  be  used  for  woman's 
suffrage  propaganda).  Susan  B.  Anthony  was  honorary 
president  of  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  a  number  of  European  women 
(such  as  Ernestine  Rose  of  Westphalia),  imbued  with 
the  ideas  of  the  February  Revolution  of  1848,  were 
compelled  to  seek  new  homes  in  America.  These  new- 
comers gave  an  impetus  to  the  woman's  suffrage  move- 
ment among  American  women.    They  were  greatly 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  9 

surprised  to  find  that  in  republics  also  political  free- 
dom was  withheld  from  women. 

This  was  strikingly  impressed  upon  the  women  of 
the  United  States  in  1870.  At  that  time  the  negroes, 
who  had  been  emancipated  in  1863,  were  given  political 
rights  throughout  the  Union  by  the  addition  of  the 
Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Federal  Constitution.^ 
In  this  way  all  power  of  the  individual  states  to  abridge 
the  poUtical  rights  of  the  negro  was  taken  away. 

The  American  women  felt  very  keenly  that  in  the 
eyes  of  their  legislators  a  member  of  an  inferior  race, 
if  only  a  man,  should  be  ranked  superior  to  any  woman, 
be  she  ever  so  highly  educated;  and  they  expressed 
their  indignation  in  a  picture  portraying  the  American 
woman  and  her  political  associates.  This  represented 
the  Indian,  the  idiot,  the  lunatic,  the  criminal,  —  and 
woman.  In  the  United  States  they  are  all  without 
poUtical  rights. 

Since  1848  an  energetic  suffrage  movement  has  been 
carried  on  by  the  American  women.  To-day  there  is 
a  "Woman's  Suffrage  Society"  in  every  state,  and  all 
these  organizations  belong  to  a  national  woman's 
suffrage  league.  In  recent  years  there  has  arisen  a 
vigorous    woman's    suffrage    movement    within    the 

1  "The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color, 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 


lO      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

numerous  and  influential  woman's  clubs  (with  almost 
a  million  members)  and  among  college  women  the 
College  Equal  Suffrage  League,  the  movement  extend- 
ing even  into  the  secondary  schools.  The  National 
Trades  Union  League,  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor,  and  nineteen  state  Federations  of  Labor  have 
declared  themselves  in  favor  of  woman's  suffrage. 
The  leaders  of  the  movement  have  now  established  the 
fact  that  "the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  does 
not  contain  a  word  or  a  line,  which,  if  interpreted  in  the 
spirit  of  the  'Declaration  of  Independence,'  denies  wo- 
man the  right  to  vote  in  state  and  national  elections." 
The  preamble  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  reads  as  follows :  "We,  the  people  of  the  United 
States  ...  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution 
for  the  United  States  of  America."  Women  are 
doubtlessly  people.  All  the  articles  of  the  Constitu- 
tion repeat  this  expression.  The  objects  of  the  Con- 
stitution are : 

1.  The  establishment  of  a  more  perfect  union  of  the 

states  among  themselves, 

2.  The  establishment  of  justice, 

3.  The  insurance  of  domestic  tranquillity, 

4.  The  provision  of  common  defense, 

5.  The  promotion  of  the  general  welfare, 

6.  The  securing  of  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  our- 

selves and  our  posterity. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  II 

All  of  these  six  points  concern  and  interest  women 
as  much  as  men.  Supplementary  to  this  is  the  "Dec- 
laration of  Independence."  Here  are  stated  as  self- 
evident  truths: 

1.  "That  all  men  are  created  equal," 

2.  "That  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 

certain  inalienable  Rights,  that  among  these 
are  Life,  Liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  Happi- 
ness," 

3.  "That   to   secure    [not   to   grant]    these   rights, 

Governments    are    instituted    among    men, 

deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of 

the  governed." 

On  this  last  passage  the  Americans  comment  with 

especial  emphasis :   they  say  the  right  to  vote  is  their 

right  as  human  beings,  —  they  possess  it  as  a  natural 

right;  the  government  cannot  justly  take  it  from  them, 

cannot  even  grant  it  to  them  justly.     So  long  as  the 

government  does  not  ask  the  women  for  their  consent, 

it  is  acting  illegally  according  to  the  Declaration   of 

Independence.     For   it   is   nowhere    stated    that   the 

consent  of  one  half,  the  male  half,  will  suffice  to  make 

a  government  legal. 

On  the  basis  of  this  declaration  of  principles  the 
American  women  have  made  it  a  point  to  oppose 
every  individual  argument  against  woman's  suffrage. 
For  this  purpose  they  frequently  use  small  four-page 


12      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

pamphlets,  which  are  issued  as  the  "Political  EquaUty 
Series"  by  the  American  Woman's  Suffrage  Associa- 
tion.   They  say  "It  is  generally  held  that: 

1.  "Every  woman  is  married,  loved,  and  provided 

for. 

2.  "  Every  man  stays  at  home  every  evening. 

3.  "  Every  woman  has  small  children. 

4.  "  All  women,  when  they  have  once  secured  political 

rights,  will  plunge  into  poUtics  and  neglect 
their  households." 
"What  is  the  exact  state  of  affairs  in  these  matters? 

1.  "A  great  many  women  are  not  married ;  many  are 

widows  who  must  educate  their  children  and 
seek  a  means  of  livelihood.  Thousands  have 
no  other  home  than  the  one  they  create  for 
themselves,  and  they  must  often  support 
relatives  in  addition  to  themselves.  Many 
of  the  married  women  are  neither  loved,  pro- 
vided for,  nor  protected. 

2.  "  Many  men  are  at  home  so  seldom  in  the  evening 

that  their  wives  could  quietly  concern  them- 
selves with  poUtical  matters  without  being 
missed  at  all.  And  such  men,  seconded  by 
bachelors,  clamor  most  about  the  'dissolu- 
tion of  the  family'  through  poUtics. 

3.  "The  children  do  not  remain  small  indefinitely; 

they  grow  up  and  hence  leave  the  mother. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  I3 

It  may  be  true  that  the  mother,  instead  of 
participating  in  political  affairs,  prefers  to 
sew  flannel  shirts  for  the  heathen,  or  pre- 
fers to  read  novels,  but  one  ought  at  least 
to  permit  her  the  freedom  of  making  the 
choice. 
4.   "The  right  to  vote  will  not  change  the  nature" of 
woman.     If  she  wished  to  leave  the  home  as 
her  sphere  of  activity,  she  would  have  found 
other  opportunities  long  ago." 
Further  fears  are  the  following:    i.  The  majority  of 
women  do  not  wish  the  right  to  vote  at  all.    To  this  we 
must  answer  that  we  cannot  yet  come  to  a  conclusion 
concerning  the  wish  of  the  majority  in  this  respect. 
The  petitions  for  woman's   suffrage   always  have  a 
greater  number  of  signatures  than  any  other  petitions 
to  Congress.     2.  Women  will  use  the  right  to  vote  only 
to  a  limited  extent.    The  statistics  in  Wyoming  and 
Colorado  prove  the  contrary.     3.  Only  women  ^'of  ill 
repute"  will  vote.    Thus  far  this  has  been  nowhere  the 
case.    The  men  guard  against  attracting  these  ele- 
ments.   Moreover,  the  right  to  vote  is  not  restricted 
to  the  men  "of  good  repute"  either,  etc.,  etc. 

The  American  women  can  obtain  the  political  fran- 
chise by  two  methods:  i.  At  the  hands  of  every  indi- 
vidual legislature  (which  would  occasion  52  sepa- 
rate  legislative  acts,  —  48   states   and  4   territories). 


14      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

2.  Through  the  adoption  of  a  sixteenth  amendment  to 
the  national  Constitution  by  Congress.^  Let  us  con- 
sider the  first  method.  The  franchise  quaUfications 
in  the  United  States  are  generally  the  following: 
male  sex,  twenty-one  year?  of  age,  American  citizen- 
ship (through  birth,  or  by  naturalization  after  five 
years*  residence). 

Amendments  to  the  state  constitution  must  be 
accepted  by  the  state  legislature  (consisting  of  the 
lower  house  and  the  senate),^  and  then  be  accepted 
in  a  referendum  vote  by  the  (male)  electorate.  To 
secure  the  adoption  of  such  an  amendment  in  a  state 
legislature  is  no  easy  task.  In  the  first  place  the 
presentation  of  a  woman's  suffrage  bill  is  not  received 
favorably;  the  RepubHcans  and  Democrats  struggle 
for  control  of  the  legislature,  the  majority  one  way 
or  the  other  never  being  large.  Therefore  the  party 
leaders  usually  consider  woman's  suffrage  not  on  the 
basis  of  party  poUtics.  Matters  are  decided  on  the 
basis  of  opportuneness.  Especially  is  this  the  case  in 
those  states  where  the  bill  must  be  passed  by  two 
successive  legislatures.  In  this  case,  between  the 
time  of  the  first  passing  of  a  bill  and  the  referendum, 
there  is  a  new  election,  and  the  opponents  of  woman's 
suffrage  can  defeat  the  adherents  of  the  measure  at 

•  Composed  of  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate. 
» In  many  states  by  two  consecutive  legislatures. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         IS 

the  polls  before  the  women  themselves  can  exercise 
the  right  of  suffrage. 

Changing  the  national  Constitution  through  the 
adoption  of  a  sixteenth  amendment  has  difficulties 
equally  great;  the  amendment  must  pass  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  the  Senate  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  and  then  be  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  state 
legislatures  or  specially  called  conventions. 

To  the  present  time  only  two  of  the  Presidents  of 
the  Union  have  publicly  expressed  themselves  in  favor 
of  woman's  suffrage,  —  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt.  In  1836  Lincoln  addressed  an  open 
letter  to  the  voters  in  New  Salem,  Illinois,  in  which  he 
said:  "I  go  for  all  sharing  the  privileges  of  the  gov- 
ernment who  assist  in  bearing  its  burdens";  and  he 
was  in  favor  of  "admitting  all  whites  to  the  right  of 
suffrage  who  pay  taxes  or  bear  arms  {by  no  means 
excluding  females).^'  Garfield,  Hayes,  and  Cleveland 
gave  their  attention  to  the  question  of  woman's  suf- 
frage ;  the  last  two  supporting  motions  in  favor  of  the 
movement.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  in  1899,  as  Assem- 
blyman in  the  New  York  State  Legislature,  spoke  in 
favor  of  woman's  suffrage:  "I  call  the  attention  of 
the  Assembly  to  the  advantages  which  a  general  ex- 
tension of  woman's  right  to  vote  must  bring  about." 

In  order  to  attain  their  end,  —  poHtical  emancipa- 
tion, —  the  American  women  use  the  following  means 


1 6      THE   MODERN   WOMAN 's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

of  agitation :  petitions,  the  submission  of  legislative 
bills,  meetings,  demonstrations,  the  distribution  of 
pamphlets,  deputations  to  the  legislatures  of  the  indi- 
vidual states  and  to  the  Congressional  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, the  organization  of  workingwomen,  requests 
to  teachers  and  preachers  to  comment  on  patriotic 
memorial  days  on  woman's  worth,  and  to  preach  at 
least  once  during  the  year  in  favor  of  woman's  suffrage. 
To  the  present  time  four  states  of  the  Union  have 
granted  full  municipal  and  political  suffrage  to  women 
(active  suffrage,  the  right  to  vote;  passive  suffrage, 
eligibility  to  oflSce).  The  states  in  question  are  Wyo- 
ming, Utah,  Colorado,  and  Idaho,  Wyoming  and  Utah 
inaugurated  woman's  suffrage  in  1869  and  1870,  re- 
spectively, when  they  were  still  territories;  and  in 
1890  and  1895,  when  they  were  given  statehood,  they 
retained  woman's  suffrage.  Colorado  granted  it  in 
1893  and  Idaho  in  1896.  The  political  emancipation 
of  woman  in  the  State  of  Washington  is  close  at 
hand,^  in  South  Dakota,^  Oregon,^  and  Nebraska 
it  seems  assured.  In  Kansas,  since  1887,  women 
have  possessed  active  and  passive  suffrage  in  mu- 
nicipal  elections.    In   the  State    of  Illinois  they  are 


1  On  November  8,  1910,  an  amendment  providing  for  woman's  suf- 
frage was  adopted  by  the  voters  of  Washington.     [Tr.] 

*  On  November  8,  1910,  both  South  Dakota  and  Oregon  rejected 
amendments  providing  for  woman's  suffrage.  [Tr.] 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 7 

about  to  secure  it.^  All  of  these  are  western  states 
with  a  new  civilization  and  a  numerical  superiority  of 
men. 

Practical  experience  with  woman's  suffrage  shows 
the  following:  everywhere  the  elections  have  become 
quieter  and  more  respectable.  The  wages  and  salaries 
of  women  have  been  generally  raised,  partly  through  the 
enactment  of  laws,  such  as  laws  regulating  the  salaries 
of  women  teachers,  etc.,  partly  through  the  better 
professional  and  industrial  organization  of  working- 
women,  who  are  now  trained  in  political  affairs.  A 
comparison  of  the  salaries  of  women  teachers  having 
woman's  suffrage  with  salaries  in  states  not  having 
woman's  suffrage  shows  the  value  of  the  ballot.  The 
pubUc  finances  have  been  more  economically  ad- 
ministered, intemperance  and  immorahty  have  been 
more  energetically  combated,  candidates  with  im- 
moral records  have  been  removed  from  the  political 
arena.  Inasmuch  as  women  have  full  political  rights 
in  the  four  states  named  (six,  including  Washington 
and  California),  they  also  vote  for  presidential  elec- 
tors, and  thus  exercise  an  influence  in  the  national 
presidential  elections.  It  is  the  woman  with  good  aver- 
age abilities  that  is  most  frequently  the  successful  can- 
didate in  political  campaigns. 

1  In  October,  igii,  California  adopted  woman's  suffrage  by  popular 
vote.    [Tr.] 
c 


1 8      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

But  as  yet  the  number  of  women  who  devote  them- 
selves to  a  political  life  is  not  large.  The  women  in 
Colorado  seem  to  have  a  special  ability  for  this.  With- 
out any  consideration  for  party  affiUations  they  secured 
the  reelection  of  Judge  Lindsey  of  the  Juvenile  Court. 
Generally  speaking,  they  have  devoted  their  efforts 
everywhere  to  the  protection  of  youth.  At  the  present 
time  the  estabhshment  of  a  special  bureau  for  the 
protection  of  youth  is  being  advocated,  and  a  national 
conference  to  discuss  the  welfare  of  children  is  to  be 
held  in  Washington,  D.C.^ 

Because  the  EngUsh  anti-woman's  suffrage  advo- 
cate, Mrs.  Humphry  Ward,  expressed  the  famiUar 
fear  that  "the  immoral  vote  would  drown  the  moral 
vote,"  the  Reverend  Anna  Shaw  declared  at  the 
Woman's  Suffrage  Congress  at  London  (May,  1909), 
that  she  openly  challenges  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward  to 
produce  one  convincing  proof  for  her  assertion.  She 
herself  had  carefully  investigated  the  recent  elections 
in  Denver,  Colorado,  to  ascertain  how  many,  if  any, 
of   the    "immoral"    women   voted,    and   received   as 

*  This  "Conference  on  the  Care  of  Dependent  Children"  was  called  by 
President  Roosevelt,  and  met,  January  25  and  26,  1909,  in  the  White 
House.  Two  hundred  and  twenty  men  and  women,  —  experts  in  the 
care  of  children,  from  every  state  in  the  Union,  —  met,  and  proposed, 
among  other  things,  the  establishment  of  a  Federal  Child's  Bureau. 
Thus  far  Congress  has  done  nothing  to  carry  out  the  proposal.  {Char- 
ities and  the  Commons,  Wol.  XXI,  643,  644;   766-768;  968-990.)     [Tr.] 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 9 

answer  that  these  women,  who  naturally  are  in  a 
minority,  generally  do  not  vote  at  all ;  first,  because 
they  pursue  their  trade  under  false  names,  secondly, 
because  most  of  them  are  not  permanently  domiciled 
and  for  both  reasons  are  not  entered  on  the  voting  lists ; 
these  women  vote  only  when  an  influence  is  exerted 
on  them  from  above  or  by  persons  around  them. 

In  the  State  of  Utah,  where  woman's  suffrage  has 
existed  since  1870,  "the  women  have  quietly  begun 
and  continued  without  a  break  the  exercise  of  that 
power,  which  from  the  remotest  time  had  been  their 
right.  They  have  concerned  themselves  with  political 
and  economic  questions,  and  if  they  have  committed 
any  errors,  these  have  not  yet  come  to  light.  They 
have  been  delegates  to  county  and  state  conventions, 
they  have  represented  the  richest  and  most  populous 
electoral  districts  in  the  state  legislature,  and  they 
serve  as  heads  of  various  state  departments"  (state 
treasurer,  supervisor  of  the  poor,  superintendent  of 
education,  etc.).  In  Colorado  (with  woman's  suffrage 
since  1893)  the  women  have  organized  clubs  in  all 
cities,  even  in  the  lonely  mining  towns  (Colorado  is  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains),  and  have  informed  themselves 
in  political  affairs  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  In  the 
capital  city,  Denver,  a  club  has  been  formed  in  which 
busy  women  can  meet  weekly  to  inform  themselves 
on   political   affairs.    In   Colorado  parental  authority 


20      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

over  children  prevails  now  (in  place  of  the  exclusively 
paternal).  In  Idaho  (with  woman's  suffrage  since 
1896)  the  women  voters  exerted  a  strong  influence 
against  gambhng.  The  enfranchised  women,  who  had 
a  right  to  vote  in  the  Httle  town  of  Caldwell,  had  sup- 
ported a  mayor  who  was  determined  to  take  measures 
against  gambUng.  The  barkeepers,  topers,  gamblers, 
and  ne'er-do-wells  were  against  him.  The  women 
presented  the  magistrate  vnih  a  petition,  which  was 
read  together  with  the  signatures.  "During  the  read- 
ing of  the  names  of  the  unobtrusive  housewives  who 
were  rarely  seen  beyond  their  own  thresholds,  the 
countenances  of  the  men  became  serious.  For  the 
first  time  they  seemed  to  grasp  what  it  really  meant 
for  a  city  to  have  woman's  suffrage."  The  bar- 
keepers and  the  gamblers  got  the  worst  of  it  and  dis- 
appeared from  the  town  hall.  An  old  municipal 
judge  said,  "When  have  our  mothers  ever  demanded 
anything  before?"^  In  the  same  way  the  women  of 
Kansas  have  employed  their  municipal  suffrage  since 
1887. 

Concerning  an  election  in  which  women  voted,  the 
"Women's  Rights  Movement"  reports  the  following: 
"Almost  all  the  women  (about  one  third  of  the  popula- 
tion) in  Wyoming,  voted"  (7000  votes  out  of  23,000). 

^  The  "mothers"  hold  special  congresses  in  the  United  States  to  dis- 
aiss  educational  and  public  questions,     (Mothers'  Congresses.) 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  21 

"In  Boise,  Idaho,  it  was  one  of  the  quietest  election  days 
in  the  annals  of  the  city.  Everywhere  the  women  came 
to  the  polls  in  the  early  part  of  the  day."  "  In  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah,  there  was  no  interruption  of  trafl5c,  no  dis- 
turbance of  any  kind  .  .  .  the  women  came  alone 
without  having  their  husbands  accompany  them  to  the 
ballot-box  during  the  noon-hour." 

Because  of  the  unsatisfactory  experiences  which  Amer- 
ica has  had  with  universal  suffrage  ^  as  such,  the  woman's 
rights  movement  had  suffered  also  and  has  been  re- 
tarded; but  owing  to  the  proceedings  of  the  English 
suffragettes  during  the  past  three  years  it  has  been 
given  a  new  impetus.  In  the  state  legislatures  through- 
out the  various  parts  of  the  country,  legislative  bills 
have,  during  this  time,  been  introduced;  on  these 
occasions  the  women  presented  their  demands  in  the 
so-called  "hearings"  (which  take  place  before  the  legis- 
lature). This  took  place  in  1908  in  Rhode  Island,  Wis- 
consin, New  Hampshire,  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
Illinois,  South  Dakota,  Kansas,  Oklahoma^,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  California,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
and  Washington.  In  the  latter  state  the  House  has 
just  passed  a  woman's  suffrage  amendment;  if  the 
Senate  passes  it,  the  amendment  will  be  submitted  to 

•  Here  universal  male  suffrage  is  meant.     [Tr.] 

*  In  November,  1910,  an  amendment  in  favor  of  woman's  suffrage 
was  defeated  by  a  referendum  vote  in  Oklahoma.     [Tr.] 


2  2       THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

popular  vote.^  A  very  active  woman's  suffrage  cam- 
paign in  the  State  of  Oregon  (1906)  failed,  owing  to  the 
opposition  of  the  friends  of  the  liquor  interests  and  the 
brothels  .2  It  is  both  significant  and  gratifying  that 
the  woman's  suffrage  movement  is  spreading  to  the 
Eastern  States ;  an  example  of  this  is  the  great  demon- 
stration of  February  22,  1909,  in  Boston. 

The  woman's  suffrage  societies  of  the  various  states 
are  formed  into  a  national  league:  the  National  Wo- 
man's Suffrage  Association,  with  about  100,000  mem- 
bers. The  President  is  the  Reverend  Anna  Shaw. 
This  Association  has  recently  drawn  up  an  enormous 
petition  to  Congress  in  order  to  secure  woman's  suf- 
frage through  federal  law,  and  has  established  head- 
quarters in  Washington,  the  federal  capital.  During 
eleven  weeks  6000  letters  and  1000  postal  cards  were 
written,  and  100,000  petition-blanks  were  distributed. 

To  the  present  time  only  a  small  number  of  women 
have  sought  state  legislative  offices;  women  members 
of  city  councils  are  rather  numerous.  At  the  present 
time  there  is  a  woman  representative  in  the  legislature 
of  Colorado.  The  former  governor,  Mr.  Alva  Adams, 
alluded  to  her  as  "a  bright,  efficient  woman,"  who  has 


1  The  amendment  passed  the  Senate  and  was  adopted  in  November, 
1910,  by  popular  vote.     [Tr.] 

*  la  November,  1910,  a  woman's  suffrage  amendment  was  again  de- 
feated, as  was  the  amendment  prohibiting  the  sale  of  liquor.     [Tr.] 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         23 

introduced  many  bills  and  secured  their  passage.  For, 
says  the  governor,  "it  must  be  a  pretty  miserable  law 
which  a  tactful  woman  cannot  have  enacted,  since  the 
male  legislators  are  usually  courteous  and  kindly  dis- 
posed, and  disregard  party  interests  in  order  to  accept 
the  measure  of  their  female  colleague."  From  which 
we  conclude  that]  the  women  legislators  strive  espe- 
cially for  measures  which  are  for  the  general  good.^ 

In  the  United  States  there  is  also  an  "Association 
Opposed  to  Woman's  Sufifrage."  Its  chief  supporters 
are  found  among  the  saloon-keepers,  the  habitual  drunk- 
ards, and  the  women  of  the  upper  classes.  But  the 
American  women  believe  "that  if  every  prayer,  every 
tear  can  be  supported  by  the  power  of  the  ballot, 
mothers  will  no  longer  shed  powerless  tears  over  the 
misfortunes  of  their  children."  ^ 

The  American  women  had  to  struggle  not  only  for 
their  rights  as  citizens,  but  they  encountered  great 
difficulty  in  securing  an  education.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  education  of  girls  in  the 
United  States  was  entirely  neglected;  the  secondary 
as  well  as  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  were  as  good 
as  closed  to  them.     Woman's  "physical  and  intellec- 

1  In  November,  1910,  four  women  were  elected  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  Colorado  legislature.     [Tr.] 

*  Mrs.  Ida  Husted  Harper,  in  collaboration  with  Susan  B.  Anthony, 
has  written  a  Uistory  of  Woman's  Suffrage  which  deals  with  the  sub- 
ject so  far  as  the  United  States  are  concerned.     [Tr.] 


24      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

tual  inferiority"  was  referred  to,  just  as  with  us  [in 
Germany];  woman's  "loss  of  her  feminine  nature" 
was  feared,  and  it  was  declared  "that  within  a  short 
time  the  country  would  be  full  of  the  wrecks  of  women 
who  had  overtaxed  themselves  with  studies."  To 
all  these  fears  the  American  women  gave  this  answer: 
Women,^you  say,  are  foolish?  God  created  them  so 
they  would  harmonize  with  man.  As  for  the  rest  they 
awaited  developments.  As  early  as  182 1  the  first  in- 
stitution for  the  higher  education  of  women,  Troy 
Seminary,  was  founded  with  hopes  for  state  aid.  In 
1833,  OberUn  College,  the  first  coeducational  college, 
was  opened  with  the  express  purpose  "of  giving  all  the 
privileges  of  higher  education  to  the  unjustly  con- 
demned and  neglected  sex."  Among  the  first  women 
students  was  the  youthful  woman's  rights  advocate, 
Lucy  Stone.  She  wished  to  learn  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
for  she  was  convinced  that  the  BibHcal  passage,  ''and 
he  shall  rule  over  thee,"  had  not  been  correctly  trans- 
lated by  the  men.  In  1865  with  the  foimding  of  Vassar 
College,  the  first  woman's  college  was  estabhshed. 
To-day  both  sexes  have  the  same  educational  oppor- 
tunities in  the  United  States.  The  four  oldest  uni- 
versities (Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  and  Johns  Hop- 
kins), established  on  the  EngUsh  model,  still  exclude 
women,  and  do  not  grant  them  academic  degrees. 
However,  the  latter  point  is  of  comparatively  minor 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  25 

importance  in  its  relation  to  the  educational  opportu- 
nities of  women.  Most  of  the  western  universities 
are  coeducational ;  in  the  East  there  are  special  woman's 
colleges.  In  the  colleges  and  universities  the  number 
of  women  students  is  a  little  over  one-third  of  the  num- 
ber of  men  students,  but  in  the  high  schools  the  girl 
students  outnumber  the  boys.  The  removal  of  all 
restrictions  to  woman's  instruction  in  the  secondary 
and  higher  institutions  of  learning  is  furthering  the 
activity  of  the  American  women  in  the  professions. 
As  teachers,  they  are  employed  chiefly  in  the  public 
schools,  in  which  they  constitute  70  per  cent  of  the  total 
staff.  So  the  majority  of  the  "freest  citizens  "  in  the 
world  are  educated  by  women.  The  number  of  women 
teachers  in  the  public  schools  is  327,151.  In  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
their  appointment.  Among  university  teachers  (pro- 
fessors and  those  of  lower  rank)  there  are  about  1000 
women.  Their  salaries  are  equal  to  those  of  the  men, 
which  is  not  always  the  case  in  the  elementary  schools, 
since  the  tendency  is  to  restrict  women  to  the  subor- 
dinate positions.^ 

The  women  who  teach  in  the  woman's  colleges  must, 
in  every  case,  possess  a  superior  individuality.  Thus 
a  woman  president  of  a  college  must  possess  academic 

*  Equal  pay  has  been  established  by  law  in  the  states  having  woman's 
suffrage. 


26      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

training  in  order  to  control  her  teaching  force;  she 
must  possess  a  deep  insight  into  human  nature  in  order 
that  her  educational  relations  with  the  pubUc  may  be 
successful ;  she  must  have  a  knowledge  of  business  in 
order  to  administer  the  property  of  her  institution  satis- 
factorily and  command  the  respect  of  the  financiers  of 
her  governing  board. 

Fifteen  thousand  American  women  are  students  in 
woman's  colleges,  and  twenty  thousand  in  coeducational 
colleges  and  universities.  In  the  latter,  the  women 
have  distinguished  themselves  through  application 
and  abiUty  so  that  frequently  they  have  taken  all  the 
academic  honors  and  prizes  to  the  exclusion  of  the  men. 
Since  they  can  no  longer  be  excluded  on  the  ground  of 
their  inferiority,  their  superiority  is  now  the  pretext 
for  their  exclusion.  But  a  suspension  of  coeducation 
in  the  United  States  is  not  to  be  considered.  The  state 
universities,  supported  with  pubUc  funds,  are  all  co- 
educational. The  existence  of  non-coeducational  col- 
leges and  universities  in  addition  to  state  institutions 
is  regarded  as  a  guarantee  of  personal  freedom  in  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  higher  education. 

Since  the  public  school  system  in  the  United  States 
is  in  great  part  coeducational,  the  exclusion  of  women 
from  conferences  pertaining  to  school  affairs  and  their 
administration  would  indicate  that  an  especially  great 
injustice    were  being    committed.    This  was    indeed 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  27 

recognized,  and  women  were  given  the  right  to  vote  on 
school  affairs  not  only  in  the  five  woman's  suffrage 
states  [Wyoming,  Utah,  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  Kansas], 
but  also  in  twenty-three  other  states,  in  which  women 
are  without  political  rights  in  other  respects.  The 
famous  deaf-bUnd  woman,  Helen  Keller,  was  appointed 
to  serve  on  the  state  committee  on  the  education  of 
the  blind.  In  Boston  trained  nurses  are  employed  to 
make  visits  to  the  homes  of  the  school  children.  An 
agitation  is  on  foot  to  have  women  inspectors  of  schools. 

In  all  woman's  suffrage  states  special  attention  is 
devoted  to  educational  matters.  Thus  the  State  of 
Idaho  appropriated  $2500  for  the  estabHshment  of  a 
lectureship  in  domestic  science.  From  1872  to  1900 
the  number  of  women  students  has  increased  148.7 
per  cent  (while  the  number  of  men  students  increased 
60.6  per  cent).  Among  women  there  are  also  fewer 
illiterates,  drunkards,  and  criminals ;  in  other  words, 
women  are  the  more  moral  and  better  educated  part 
of  the  American  population ;  and  it  is  these  who  are 
excluded  from  active  participation  in  political  affairs. 

The  number  of  women  lawyers  is  estimated  at  one 
thousand;  in  twenty-three  states  they  may  plead  in 
the  Supreme  Court.  Women  lawyers  have  their  own 
professional  organizations. 

In  Ohio,  women  are  employed  in  the  police  service; 
in  Pennsylvania  they  are  appointed  as  tax-collectors; 


28      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

in  the  city  of  Portland  a  woman  was  appointed  as  in- 
spector of  markets  with  police  power.  Women  justices 
of  the  peace  are  as  numerous  as  women  mayors.  In 
Oregon  a  woman  is  secretary  to  the  governor,  for  whom 
she  acts  with  full  authority. 

In  all  woman's  suffrage  states  women  act  as  jurors. 
Besides  these  states  only  Illinois  permits  women  to 
serve  as  jurors  —  and  then  only  in  a  juvenile  court. 

There  are  said  to  be  about  2000  women  journalists. 
Their  writings  are  often  sensational,  but  in  the  United 
States  sensationalism  is  characteristic  of  the  profession. 

Of  women  preachers  there  are  3,500,  belonging  to 
158  different  denominations.  Among  these  women 
preachers  there  are  also  negresses.  The  women  study 
in  theological  seminaries,  are  ordained  and  devote  them- 
selves either  to  the  real  calling  of  the  ministry,  social 
rescue  work,  or  to  the  woman's  rights  propaganda,  as 
does  the  excellent  speaker,  the  Reverend  Anna  Shaw. 
The  women  preachers  who  devote  themselves  to  social 
rescue  work  usually  study  medicine  also,  so  that  they 
can  first  secure  confidence  as  persons  skilled  in  the  cure 
of  the  body,  and  then  later  the  cure  of  the  soul  is  less 
difficult. 

There  are  7000  women  in  the  medical  profession, — 
more  than  in  any  other  profession.  The  first  women 
who  studied  medicine  were  American,  Elizabeth  Black- 
well  having  done  so  as  early  as  1846.     Only  the  Uni- 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         29 

versity  of  Geneva  (New  York)  would  admit  her; 
in  1848  she  graduated  there.  Then  she  continued  her 
studies  in  Paris  and  London,  returning  in  1851  to  New 
York,  in  order  to  practice.  Her  first  patients  were 
Quakers.  Elizabeth  Blackwell  and  her  sister  Emily 
(Blackwell)  then  founded  in  New  York  the  "Hospital 
for  Indigent  Women,"  to  which  the  medical  schools 
in  Boston  and  Philadelphia  sent  their  graduates  to  obtain 
practical  work.^  A  large  number  of  women  lawyers, 
preachers,  and  doctors  are  married.  In  1900  the  total 
number  of  women  in  the  professions  (exclusive  of  teach- 
ing) was  16,000.  In  igoo,  14.3  per  cent  of  the  female 
population  were  engaged  in  industries;  since  1880  the 
number  of  women  engaged  in  the  professions  and 
industries  increased  128  per  cent  (while  that  of  the 
men  increased  76  per  cent).^ 

Most  of  the  technical  schools  admit  women.  There 
are  fifty-three  women  architects.  The  Woman's  Build- 
ing of  the  World's  Exposition  in  Chicago  (1893)  was 
designed  by  Sophia  Haydn  and  erected  under  her  super- 
vision. It  is  not  unusual  for  women  who  are  owners 
of  business  enterprises  to  take  technical  courses.  Thus 
Miss  Jones,  as  her  father's  heir,  became,  after  a  careful 


•  It  is  worth  mentioning  that  in  the  Spanish-American  War  Miss 
McGee  filled  the  position  of  assistant  surgeon  in  the  medical  department, 
doing  so  with  distinction. 

*  A.  V.  Mdday,  Le  droit  desfemmes  au  travail,  Paris,  Giardet  ct  Briere. 


30      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

education,  manageress  of  her  large  steel  works  in 
Chicago.  The  Cincinnati  pottery  [Rookwood],  founded 
by  women,  is  also  managed  by  them.  There  are  five 
women  captains  of  ships,  four  women  pilots,  and  twenty- 
four  women  engineers. 

During  twenty-five  years,  women  have  had  4000 
inventions  patented.  The  women  of  the  South  pro- 
duced fewest  inventions.  But  in  these  fields  women 
still  meet  with  prejudice  and  difficulties.  In  increasing 
numbers  women  are  becoming  bankers,  merchants, 
contractors,  owners  or  managers  of  factories,  share- 
holders, stock-brokers,  and  commercial  travelers. 
About  1000  women  are  now  engaged  in  these  occupa- 
tions. As  ofl5ce  clerks  women  have  stood  the  test  well 
in  the  United  States.  They  are  esteemed  for  their 
discretion  and  willingness  to  work.  They  are  paid 
$12  to  $20  a  week.  According  to  the  most  recent 
statistics  on  the  trades  and  professions  (1900)  there 
were  1271  women  bank  clerks,  27,712  women  book- 
keepers, and  86,118  women  stenographers. 

In  the  civil  service  we  find  fewer  women  (they  are 
not  voters) :  in  1890  there  were  14,692,  of  whom 
8474  were  postal,  telephone,  and  telegraph  clerks,  and 
300  were  poHce  officials.  In  1900,  the  total  number  of 
women  engaged  in  commerce  was  503,574. 

The  prejudice  against  the  women  of  the  lower  classes 
is  still  evident.    Here  at  the  very  outset  there  is  a  great 


THE   GERMANIC  COUNTRIES  31 

difiference  between  the  wages  of  men  and  women, 
the  wages  of  the  latter  being  from  one  third  to  one  half 
lower.  This  is  caused  partly  by  the  fact  that  women 
are  given  the  disagreeable,  tiresome,  and  unimportant 
work,  which  they  must  accept,  not  being  given  an  op- 
portunity to  do  the  better  class  of  work,  —  frequently 
because  they  have  not  learned  their  trade  thoroughly. 
A  further  cause  for  the  lower  wages  of  women  is  that 
they  are  working  for  "pocket-money"  and  "inciden- 
tals," and  thus  spoil  the  market  for  those  who  must 
pay  their  whole  living  expenses  with  what  they  earn. 
Among  the  women  workers  of  the  United  States  there 
are  two  classes,  —  the  industrial  class  and  the  ama- 
teurs. The  latter  make  the  existence  of  the  former  al- 
most impossible.  Such  a  competition  is  unknown  to 
men  in  industrial  work.  Mrs.  v.  Vorst  ^  proposes  a 
solution  —  to  make  the  industrial  amateurs  become 
special  artisans  by  means  of  a  longer  apprenticeship, 
thus  relieving  the  industrial  slaves  from  injurious  com- 
petition. 

Office  work  and  work  in  the  factories  enables  the 
American  women  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  to 
satisfy  their  desire  for  independence;  those  who  are 
not  obliged  to  provide  for  themselves  wish  at  least 
to  have  money  at  their  disposal.  That  is  a  thoroughly 
sound   aspiration.     These   girls   become   factory   em- 

*  In  her  book,  L'ouvriere  aux  Etals-Unis,  Paris,  Juven,  1904. 


32      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

ployees  and  not  domestic  servants,  (i)  because  work 
in  their  own  home  is  not  paid  for  (the  general  disregard 
of  housework  drives  the  women  striving  for  independ- 
ence away  from  the  house) ;  (2)  because  of  the  ab- 
sence of  regularity  in  housework;  (3)  because  the 
domestic  servants  are  not  free  on  Sundays ;  (4)  because 
they  must  live  with  the  employers.  These  facts  are 
established  by  answer  to  inquiries  made  by  Miss  Jack- 
son, factory  inspector  of  Wisconsin. 

The  women  employed  in  the  stores  and  factories  are 
in  general  paid  about  the  same  wages,  $4  to  $6  a  week. 
A  saleswoman,  upon  whom  greater  demands  are  made  as 
to  dress  and  personal  appearance,  finds  it  more  diffi- 
cult to  live  on  these  wages  than  would  the  woman 
employed  in  the  factory.  As  pocket-money,  how- 
ever, this  sum  is  a  very  good  remuneration,  and  this 
explains  why  the  girls  of  these  classes,  in  imitation  of  the 
bad  example  set  them  by  the  members  of  the  upper 
ranks  of  society,  manifest  such  an  extraordinary  taste 
for  costly  clothes  and  expensive  pleasures.  In  1888,  an 
official  inquiry  showed  that  95  per  cent  of  the  women 
laborers  lived  at  home ;  in  189 1  another  official  inquiry 
showed  that  one  third  of  the  women  laborers  earned 
$5  a  week ;  two  thirds  from  $5  to  $7,  and  only  1.8  per 
cent  earned  more  than  $12,  while  the  men  laborers 
earned  on  the  average  $12  to  $15  a  week.  Women 
laborers  are  organized  as  yet  only  to  a  small  extent 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  33 

(i  per  cent,  while  lo  per  cent  of  the  men  are  organized). 
There  are  separate  social-democratic  organizations  of 
women,  formed  through  the  Federation  of  Labor. 

The  workingwomen  especially  will  be  helped  by  the 
right  to  vote.  In  the  ''Political  Equality  Series" 
appears  a  pamphlet  entitled  Why  does  the  Working- 
woman  need  the  Right  to  Vote  ?  In  the  first  place  she 
needs  the  right  to  vote  in  order  to  secure  higher  wages. 
Just  suppose  that  the  members  of  the  typographical 
union  were  to-morrow  deprived  of  their  right  to  vote. 
Only  their  full  political  emancipation  could  again  re- 
store them  to  thsir  former  position  of  prestige  among 
the  working  classes.  This  is  exactly  the  case  with  the 
women,  and  they  have  not  even  reached  the  highly- 
developed  organization  of  the  typographers.  A  politi- 
cally unfree  laboring  class  is  also  unable  to  maintain 
its  vocation  against  a  laboring  class  possessing  political 
rights;  if  the  vocation  is  remunerative  the  unfree  class 
will  be  deprived  of  it  or  be  kept  from  it  altogether.  The 
oppression  of  the  workingwomen  has  its  effect  also  on 
men  through  its  tendency  to  lower  wages.  Therefore 
at  the  present  time  the  trades-unions  have  recognized 
that  to  organize  women  is  in  the  interests  of  all  work- 
ingmen,  and  while  the  women  were  refused  organization 
forty  years  ago,  the  Federation  of  Labor  is  to-day  pay- 
ing trades-union  organizers  to  induce  women  to  be- 
come members  of  trades-unions.     The  introduction  of 


34      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

a  low  rate  of  wages  in  one  branch  of  a  trade  (pursued 
by  both  men  and  women)  is  always  a  menace  to  the 
branches  that  survive  the  reduction.  The  number  of 
women  engaged  in  the  industries  in  1900  was  1,315,890. 
The  number  of  married  women  engaged  in  industrial 
pursuits  is  small;  in  1895,  an  ofl&cial  investigation 
showed  that  in  1067  factories  7,000  workingwomen 
out  of  71,000  were  married.  The  chief  industries  in 
which  women  are  employed  are  the  textile  industry 
(cotton),  laundering,  the  manufacture  of  ready-made 
clothing,  corsets,  carpets,  millinery,  and  fancy-goods. 
Women  work  alongside  the  men  in  wool-spinning,  in 
bookbinding,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  mittens, 
tobacco,  and  confectionery. 

The  inability  of  workingwomen  to  exercise  politi- 
cal rights  makes  minors  of  them  when  compared  with 
workingmen,  and  this  decreases  their  importance  as 
human  beings.  Women  cannot  protect  themselves 
against  injustice,  and  these  things  put  them  at  a  great 
disadvantage. 

The  American  women  became  involved  in  a  lively 
conflict  with  President  Roosevelt  (otherwise  favoring 
woman's  rights)  concerning  his  gift  to  a  father  and 
mother  for  bringing  twenty  children  into  the  world. 
The  women  declared  in  the  Woman's  Journal  that 
it  is  wrong  to  encourage  an  immoderate  procreation 
of    children    among    a    population    70    per    cent    of 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         35 

which  possesses  no  property.^  Above  all,  this  en- 
couragement is  not  only  a  menace  to  the  overworked 
and  oppressed  workingwomen,  but  it  is  inhuman,  and 
really  lowers  woman  to  the  position  of  a  machine  for 
bearing  children. 

The  institution  of  factory  inspection  does  not  as  yet 
exist  in  the  whole  Union.  According  to  the  report  of 
Mrs.  V.  Vorst^  the  factories  and  the  homes  of  la- 
borers in  the  Southern  States  are  extremely  unsatis- 
factory. Child  labor  is  exploited  there,  a  matter 
which  is  now  being  dealt  with  by  the  National  Child 
Labor  Committee.  According  to  this  same  work  (the 
inquiry  of  Mrs.  v.  Vorst)  the  living  conditions  in  the 
North  and  Central  States  are  better,  and  the  moral 
menaces  to  the  young  girl  are  inconsiderable.  The 
women  of  the  property-holding  classes  are  attempting 
to  do  their  duty  toward  the  women  of  the  factories  and 
stores  by  founding  clubs,  vacation  colonies,  and  homes 
for  them.  Within  recent  years  the  great  department 
stores  have  appointed  "social  secretaries,"  who  look 
after  the  weal  and  woe  of  the  employees.  It  would  be 
well  to  have  such  secretaries  in  the  factories  and  mills 
also.  Since  1874  the  working  week  of  sixty  hours  for 
women  in  industry  and  commerce  has  spread  from 
Massachusetts  to  almost  the  entire  Union.     Since  1890, 

'  Those  who  cannot  pay  an  annual  tax  of  two  dollars. 
*  In  L'ouvriere  aux  Eiats-Unis. 


36      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

night  labor  has  been  prohibited  by  law.  The  working 
girls  have  been  provided  with  seats  while  at  work, 
partly  as  a  result  of  legislation  and  partly  by  the  volun- 
tary act  of  the  employers. 

In  agriculture  women  find  a  profitable  field  of  activ- 
ity. Of  course  they  are  never  field  hands,  but  are 
employers  and  laborers  in  the  dairy  business,  in  poultry 
farming,  and  in  the  raising  of  vegetables  and  fruit. 
Women  have  introduced  the  growing  of  cress,  cran- 
berries, and  cucumbers  in  various  regions,  and  have  culti- 
vated the  famous  asparagus  of  Oyster  Bay  and  the 
"Improved  New  York  Strawberries."  In  1900,  there 
were  980,025  women  engaged  in  agriculture  (as  com- 
pared with  9,458,194  men).  The  number  of  women 
domestic  servants  in  the  United  States  amounts  to 
2,099,165;  fifty  per  cent  of  the  families  dispense  with 
servants,  since  they  cannot  afiford  to  pay  $15  to  $20  a 
month  for  a  servant,  or  $30  for  a  cook.  Educated 
women,  called  visiting  housekeepers,  undertake  the 
supervision  of  some  of  the  households  of  the  better 
class,  aided,  of  course,  by  help  in  the  house. 

The  legal  status  of  the  American  women  is  regulated 
by  52  sets  of  laws,  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
states  and  territories.  The  civil  code  is  unfavorable 
to  woman  in  most  of  the  states.  In  the  National  Trade 
Union  League  (New  York)  the  Reverend  Anna  Shaw 
declared  recently  that  in  38  states  the  property  laws 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         37 

made  "joint  property  holding"  legal,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  wife  has  no  independent  control  of  her  per- 
sonal earnings  or  her  personal  effects,  e.g.  her  clothes. 
In  38  states  the  wife  also  has  no  legal  authority  over 
her  children.  For  full  particulars  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Volume  IV  of  the  History  of  Woman's  Suffrage. 
To  an  increasing  extent  the  women  are  using  their 
right  to  administer  their  property  independently,  and 
the  men  are  usually  proud  of  the  business  ability  and 
success  of  their  wives. 

A  legal  regulation  of  prostitution  (such  as  prevailed 
formerly  in  England  and  as  prevails  now  in  Germany) 
does  not  exist  in  the  United  States.  Cincinnati  is  the 
only  city  which  in  the  European  sense  has  pohce  con- 
trol of  prostitution.  Public  opinion  has  successfully 
resisted  all  similar  attempts.  (Woman's  Journal, 
July,  1904.)  The  American  Commission,  which  went 
to  Europe  to  study  the  regulation  of  prostitution,  de- 
clared that  the  American  woman  cannot  be  expected 
to  sanction  such  an  arrangement,  and  that,  moreover, 
the  system  had  not  stood  the  test.  In  the  police 
stations,  poUce  matrons  are  employed.  The  law  pro- 
tects the  woman  in  the  street  against  the  man  and  not, 
as  in  Europe,  the  man  against  the  woman. 

In  order  to  combat  the  double  standard  of  morals 
the  "Social  Purity  League"  was  formed.  The  mem- 
bership is  composed  of  those  men  and  women  who  are 


38      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

thoroughly  convinced  that  there  is  only  one  standard 
of  morality  for  both  sexes,  since  they  have  the  same 
obligations  to  their  offspring.  Founded  in  1886,  this 
organization  has  spread  since  1889  throughout  the  entire 
Union. 

The  "World's  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,"  the  second  largest  international  woman's 
organization,  originated  in  America.  It  was  founded 
in  1883  by  Frances  E.  Willard  (her  father  was  Hilgard, 
from  the  Palatinate).  The  Union  has  300,000  members 
in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time,  and  450,000 
members  in  the  whole  world.  In  1906  it  met  in  Boston. 
It  is  the  determined  enemy  of  alcohol,  and  gives  proof 
of  its  convictions  through  the  work  of  its  soldier's  and 
sailor's  department,  its  committees  on  railroads,  tram- 
ways, police  stations,  cab  drivers,  etc.  This  Union, 
as  well  as  the  "Social  Purity  League,"  is  a  firm  advo- 
cate of  wom.an's  suffrage. 

The  emancipation  of  the  American  women  is  pro- 
moted through  sports.  If  on  the  one  hand  they  appre- 
ciate an  elaborate  toilette,  on  the  other  hand  they  recog- 
nize the  advantages  of  bloomers,  the  walking  skirt,  and 
the  divided  skirt.  In  these  costumes  they  play  bas- 
ketball, polo,  tennis,  and  take  gymnastic  exercise,  fence, 
and  row.  The  woman's  colleges  are  centers  of  athletic 
Hfe.  There  the  girls  now  play  football  in  male  costume, 
the  public  being  excluded.    In  all  large  cities  there  are 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  39 

athletic  clubs  for  women,  some  extremely  sumptuous 
(with  a  hundred-dollar  fee)  as  well  as  very  simple  clubs 
for  workingwomen  of  sedentary  life. 

We  have  seen  that  the  legal  status  of  women  in  many 
states  is  still  in  need  of  reform.  All  the  more  instruc- 
tive is  the  survey  of  laws  concerning  women  and  chil- 
dren in  the  woman's  suffrage  states,  pubhshed  by  Mrs. 
C.  Waugh  McCuUock,  a  woman  lawyer,  of  Chicago. 
The  wife  disposes  of  her  wages  and  her  dowry  (in  Wyo- 
ming, Colorado,  Utah,  and  Idaho).  Men  and  women 
receive  equal  pay  for  the  same  work.  All  professions 
and  public  offices  are  open  to  women.  Women  act  as 
jurors.  They  have  the  same  right  of  inheritance  as 
men.  Divorce  is  granted  to  either  party  under  the 
same  circimistances.  The  claims  of  the  wife  and  the 
children  under  age  are  given  a  decided  preference  over 
those  of  creditors.  Education  from  the  kindergarten 
to  the  university  is  free  and  is  open  to  women.  The 
labor  of  women  in  mines  is  prohibited.  The  maximum 
working-day  for  women  is  eight  hours.  All  houses  of 
correction  and  institutions  for  the  protection  of  women 
and  children  must  have  women  physicians  and  over- 
seers. The  age  of  consent  is  18  years.  Gambling  and 
prostitution  are  prohibited.  Both  father  and  mother 
exercise  parental  authority.  The  surviving  husband 
is  guardian  of  the  children.  The  sale  of  alcoholic 
liquors  and  tobacco  to  children  is  prohibited.    No  child 


40      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS  MOVEMENT 

under  14  years  of  age  may  work  in  the  mines.  Porno- 
graphic literature  and  pictures  are  prohibited. 

In  conclusion  I  shall  take  several  points  from  the 
lecture  which  Professor  F.  Laurie  Poster  held  before 
the  Political  Equality  League  in  Chicago,  after  the 
women  of  Chicago  had  waged  a  vigorous  campaign  for 
the  right  to  vote  in  municipal  afifairs. 

Why  is  the  value  of  woman  placed  so  low  ?  Merely 
because  she  is  more  helpless  than  man.  Children  are 
valued  even  less  than  women  because  they  surpass  the 
women  in  helplessness.  Only  animals  have  less  power 
of  defense ;  therefore  they  have  the  lowest  value  placed 
on  them.  In  the  United  States  it  has  now  been  demon- 
strated that  whoever  possesses  the  right  to  vote  is  es- 
teemed more  highly  than  he  who  does  not  have  that 
right.  We  see  this  in  the  woman's  suffrage  states; 
here  the  women  have  made  provisions  not  only  for 
themselves,  but  for  the  children  as  well,  for  it  is  one  of 
the  fundamental  instincts  of  woman  to  protect  her  little 
ones.  In  most  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  however, 
women  can  help  directly  neither  themselves  nor  their 
children.  That  women  should  be  forced  to  struggle 
for  these  ends  against  the  opposition  of  man  is  one  of 
the  most  imfortunate  phases  of  the  whole  movement. 

When  woman  became  property,  a  possession,  the 
overestimation  of  her  sexual  value  began.  Her  sex 
was  her  weapon,  and  her  capabilities  became  stunted. 


THE   GERMANIC   COtJNTRIES  41 

This  over  emphasis  of  the  sexual  causes  a  great  part  of 
the  most  flagrant  evils  among  civilized  peoples.  To-day 
we  have  reached  a  stage  where  we  despise  him  who  sells 
his  vote.  Unfortunately  it  is  still  permitted  to  sell 
one's  sex.  In  this  roundabout  way  woman  attains 
most  of  the  good  things  in  life.  Her  economic  successes 
depend  almost  entirely  on  the  resources  of  the  man  to 
whom  she  belongs.  Both  sexes  suffer  as  a  result  of 
this  attitude  of  society.  Woman's  uncertain  feeling, 
that  she  must  concentrate  her  interests  and  responsi- 
bilities in  the  one  who  provides  for  the  family,  has 
created  exceedingly  peculiar  customs  and  a  wholly 
absurd  code  of  honor  for  both  man  and  woman. 
Thereby  woman  is  directed  to  a  roimdahout  way  for 
everything  she  wishes  to  obtain.  Whatever  she  wishes 
for  herself  must  appear  as  a  domestic  virtue,  if  possible 
as  a  sacrifice  for  the  family.  Man  thinks  it  very  natu- 
ral that  he  should  do  what  he  desires,  that  he  should 
pursue  his  pleasures  and  gratify  his  passions,  for  he  is 
indeed  the  one  who  possesses  authority  and  does  not 
need  first  to  stamp  his  wishes  as  virtues.  But  it  seems 
just  as  natural  to  him  that  the  women  of  the  family 
should  be  endowed  with  a  double  portion  of  piety,  econ- 
omy and  willingness  to  make  sacrifices,  —  virtues  in 
which  he  is  so  lacking.  Women  are  created  especially 
for  that.  By  nature  they  are  better,  and  indeed  they 
make  great  efforts  to  cover  the  faults  of  the  offending 


42      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

one  and  forgivingly  accept  him  again.  In  fact  they  do 
it  gladly;  it  gives  them  pleasure,  and  man  certainly 
does  not  wish  to  deprive  them  of  the  opportunity  for 
such  great  joys.  Therefore  man  is  instantly  at  hand 
to  warn  woman  when  she  shows  any  incUnation  toward 
adopting  "masculine"  habits.  But  he  certainly  would 
be  more  conscientious  and  more  moral  if  woman  no 
longer  assumed  these  virtues  vicariously  for  him.  Wo- 
man must  make  her  demands  of  man.  For  that  she 
must  be  free} 

AUSTRALIA  ^ 

Total  population :  4,555,662. 
Women:  2,166,318. 

Men :  2,389,344. 

An  association  of  women's  clubs  in  each  of  five  colonies. 
The  Australian   Women's   Political   Association,  embracing  six 
colonies. 

It  is  a  rare  thing  for  Europeans  to  have  a  definite 
conception  of  the  Australian  Commonwealth.    This  is 

1  The  organ  of  the  National  American  Woman's  Suffrage  Association 
is  Progress  and  is  published  in  Warren,  Ohio.  There,  one  can  also  secure 
Perhaps  and  Do  you  Know,  two  valuable  propaganda  pamphlets  written 
by  Mrs.  Carrie  Chapman  Catt.  Other  literature  on  woman's  suffrage 
can  be  obtained  from  the  same  source. 

*  Although  New  Zealand  is  not  politically  a  part  of  the  Australian 
Federation,  it  will  for  convenience  be  treated  here  as  such. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         43 

the  more  to  be  regretted  since  this  federation  of  re- 
pubUcs  is  among  the  countries  that  have  made  the 
greatest  progress  in  the  woman's  rights  movement.  In 
no  other  part  of  the  world  has  such  a  radical  change  in 
the  status  of  woman  been  effected  in  so  short  a  time 
and  with  such  comparatively  insignificant  struggles. 

Till  1840,  AustraHa  had  been  a  penal  colony.  Since 
then,  —  after  the  discovery  of  the  first  gold  fields,  — 
a  multitude  of  fortune-seekers,  gold-miners,  and  adven- 
turers joined  the  population  of  deported  convicts.  The 
good  middle-class  element  for  a  long  time  remained  in 
the  minority.  Certainly  nobody  would  have  believed 
that  there  existed  at  that  time  in  Australia  all  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  growth  of  a  flourishing  and 
highly  civilized  commonwealth.  Nevertheless,  such  was 
the  case.  There  were  formed  seven  democratic  states, 
whose  people  were  not  bound  by  any  traditionalism  or 
excessive  fondness  for  time-honored,  inherited  customs ; 
these  people  wished  to  have  elbowroom  and  were  de- 
termined to  establish  themselves  on  their  own  soil  in 
their  own  way.  This  all  took  place  the  more  easily 
since  England  gave  the  growing  commonwealth  in 
general  an  exceedingly  free  hand,  and  because  the  in- 
habitants were  by  nature  independent.  Australia  was 
colonized  by  those  who,  having  come  into  conflict  with 
the  laws  of  the  old  world,  found  their  sphere  of  hfe  nar- 
row and  restricted. 


44      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Because  Australia  to-day  has  only  about  five  million 
inhabitants,  the  country  is  confronted  only  in  a  limited 
way  with  the  problem  of  deaUng  with  congested  masses 
of  people,  a  condition  which  is  favorable  to  all  social  ex- 
perimentation. Those  in  authority  believe  they  can 
direct  and  eventually  mold  the  development  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

Sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  population  are  Protestant ; 
the  Germanic  element  predominates.  The  women 
constitute  not  quite  50  per  cent  of  the  population. 
Thus  in  many  respects  the  Australian  colonies  possess 
conditions  similar  to  those  prevailing  in  the  western 
states  of  the  American  Union,  and  the  results  of  the 
woman's  rights  movement  are  in  both  regions  approxi- 
mately the  samiC.  Mrs.  M.  Donohue,  one  of  the  dele- 
gates from  AustraUa,  declared  at  the  London  Woman's 
Suffrage  Congress  that  her  country  had  brought  about 
"the  greatest  happiness  for  the  greatest  number." 

Naturally,  the  AustraUan  governments  had  originally 
a  series  of  material  problems  to  solve,  real  problems  of 
existence,  as,  for  example,  to  find  a  satisfactory  agricul- 
tural pohcy  in  a  predominantly  farming  and  cattle- 
raising  country.  When  the  economic  basis  of  the  coun- 
try seemed  sufficiently  secure,  the  intellectual  interests 
were  given  attention.  A  country  which  never  had 
slavery  or  a  feudal  regime,  a  Salic  Law,  or  a  Code  Na- 
poleon ;  a  country  which  has  no  divine  right  of  kings, 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         45 

and  is  not  oppressed  with  militarism ;  a  country  which 
judges  a  man  by  his  personal  ability  and  esteems  him 
for  what  he  is,  such  a  country  certainly  could  not  tol- 
erate the  dogma  of  woman's  inferiority.  Between 
1 87 1  and  1880,  the  school  systems  of  the  various  colo- 
nies were  regulated  by  a  series  of  laws.  Elementary 
instruction,  which  is  free  and  obligatory,  is  given  in 
pubHc  schools  to  children  of  both  sexes  between  the 
ages  of  five  and  fifteen,  but  in  most  cases  the  sexes  are 
segregated.  In  the  public  schools  of  the  whole  con- 
tinent about  20,000  teachers  are  employed  (9,000  men 
and  1 1,000  women).  The  men  predominate  in  the 
leading  well-paid  positions.  The  secondary  school 
system  (as  in  England)  is  composed  largely  of  private 
schools,  and  is  to  a  great  extent  in  the  hands  of  the 
Protestant  denominations  and  the  Catholic  orders. 
The  governments  subsidize  these  institutions.  Girls 
and  boys  enjoy  the  same  educational  opportunities  in 
the  schools,  part  of  which  are  coeducational. 

The  four  Australian  universities  —  Sidney  (New 
South  Wales),  Melbourne  (Victoria),  Adelaide  (South 
Australia),  and  Aukland  (New  Zealand)  —  are  to-day 
open  to  women,  who  can  secure  all  academic  degrees 
granted  by  the  philosophical,  law,  and  medical  faculties.^ 

The  number  of  students  in  the  universities  is  as 
follows:    in  Sidney,  1054  (of  whom  142  are  women); 

1  The  theological  degrees  are  granted  only  in  England. 


46      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

in  New  Zealand  University,  1332  (of  whom  369  are 
women);  in  Melbourne,  853  (of  whom  128  are  women). 
The  total  number  of  students  in  Adelaide  and  Hobart 
is  626  and  62  respectively,  but  the  number  of  women 
students  is  not  given.  The  educational  problem  is 
thus  solved  for  the  Australian  woman  in  a  favorable 
manner :  she  has  equal  and  full  privileges  in  the 
universities. 

What  are  the  conditions  in  the  occupations?  "All 
occupations  are  open  to  women,"  is  stated  in  a  report 
which  I  have  used.^  But  that  is  not  entirely  correct. 
Women  are  teachers,  but  they  are  not  lecturers  and 
professors  in  the  universities.  As  preachers  they  are 
admitted  only  among  the  Nonconformists.  There 
are  women  doctors  and  dentists,  and  in  four  colonies 
(New  Zealand,  Tasmania,  West  AustraUa,  and  Vic- 
toria) women  are  permitted  to  practice  law,  but  they 
are  confronted  with  a  certain  popular  prejudice  when 
they  attempt  to  enter  medicine,  law,  technical  science, 
and  a  teaching  career  in  the  universities.  The  state 
employs  women  in  the  elementary  schools ;  in  the  postal 
and  telegraph  service;  as  registrars  (permitting  them 
to  perform  marriage  ceremonies) ;  and  as  factory  in- 
spectors. But  the  salaries  and  wages  in  Austraha  are 
not  always  the  same  for  both  sexes.    Thus,  for  ex- 

I  Report  of  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Conference,  Wash- 
ington, 1902. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES  47 

ample,  in  South  Australia  the  male  head  masters  of  the 
public  schools  draw  salaries  of  no  to  450  pounds 
sterling,  while  the  women  draw  80  to  156  pounds 
sterling.  Since  school  affairs  are  not  affairs  under  the 
control  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  federal  law  (equal 
wages  for  equal  work)  cannot  be  applied  in  this  par- 
ticular. In  Tasmania  ^  (where  the  women  have  voted 
since  1903)  women  are  teachers  in  the  public  schools, 
employees  in  the  postal,  telegraph,  and  telephone 
systems,  supervisors  of  health  in  the  public  schools, 
and  assistants  to  the  quarantine  and  sanitary  boards; 
they  are  registrars  in  the  parishes,  superintendents  of 
hospitals,  asylums,  prisons,  etc.  Public  offices  in  the 
army,  the  navy,  and  the  church  alone  remain  closed 
to  them. 

;  It  is  to  be  noted  here  that  Mrs.  Dobson,  of  Tas- 
mania, was  the  official  representative  of  the  Australian 
government  at  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage 
Congress  held  in  Amsterdam  in  1908. 

The  oflficial  yearbook  of  the  Australian  Federation 
gives  the  following  industrial  statistics  for  1901 :  state 
and  municipal  office  holders,  41,235  women  (69,899 
men) ;  domestic  servants,  150,201  women  (50,335  men) ; 
commerce,  34,514  women  (188,144  men) ;  transporta- 
tion, 3429  women  (118,730  men);  industry,  75,570 
women  (350,596  men) ;  agriculture  and  forestry, 
>  Report  of  the  National  Council  of  Women,  1908. 


48      THE   MODERN   WOMAN' S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

fisheries,  and  mining,  38,944  women  (494,163  men). 
In  all  fields,  with  the  exception  of  domestic  service, 
the  men  are  in  a  numerical  superiority;  therefore  the 
matrimonial  opportunities  of  the  Australian  woman 
are  favorable.  For  every  100  girls  105.99  boys  were 
born  in  1906;  the  statistics  for  1906  showed  a  greater 
number  of  marriages  than  ever  before  (30,410).  The 
difference  in  the  ages  of  the  married  men  and  women 
is  4.5  years  on  the  average;  the  nimiber  of  children 
per  family  is  about  4  (3.77). 

Five  Australian  colonies  (New  Zealand,  Victoria, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  and  New  South  Wales) 
have  enacted  the  following  laws  for  the  protection  of 
workingwomen : 

1.  Maximum  working  time  —  48  hours  a  week. 

2.  The  prohibition  of  night  work  (except  in  Queens- 

land). 

3.  Higher  wages  for  overtime. 

The  eight-hour  day  is  necessitated  throughout 
Australia  by  the  climate.  The  other  provisions  are 
perhaps  not  stringently  enforced.  Children  under  thir- 
teen years  cannot  be  employed  in  the  factories.  Social- 
istic regulations,  such  as  fixing  the  minimum  wages  in 
certain  industries,  and  the  establishment  of  obligatory 
courts  of  arbitration,  have  been  instituted  in  several 
colonies  (Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  etc.). 

In  the  beginning  the  English  Common  Law  regulated 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         49 

the  legal  status  of  the  Australian  women.  During  the 
past  fifty  years  this  law  has  undergone  many  modi- 
fications. Each  colony  acted  independently  in  the 
matter,  and  therefore  there  is  no  longer  uniformity. 
In  all  cases  separate  ownership  of  property  is  legal. 
However,  joint  parental  authority  is  legally  established 
only  in  New  Zealand.  The  divorce  laws  are  preju- 
dicial to  women  in  almost  all  respects. 

In  the  field  of  legislation  the  influence  of  woman's 
suffrage  has  already  made  itself  definitely  felt.  Each 
colony  has  its  state  legislature  which  consists  of  a 
Lower  House  and  a  Senate.  Every  Australian  who  is 
twenty-one  years  old  is  a  voter  in  both  state  and  munici- 
pal elections.  (There  is  a  property  qualification  only  for 
those  voting  for  the  Senate.)  In  1869  the  woman's 
suffrage  movement  began  in  Australia  (in  Victoria). 
The  right  to  vote  in  school  and  municipal  affairs  was 
given  to  women  as  a  matter  of  course.^  The  right  to 
vote  in  state  affairs  was  granted  to  women  first  in 
New  Zealand  in  1893,  in  South  Australia  in  1895,  in 
West  Australia  in  1899,  in  New  South  Wales  in  1903, 
in  Queensland  in  1905,  and  in  Victoria  in  1908. 

When  the  six  Australian  colonies  (excluding  New 

Zealand)  formed  themselves  into  a  federation  in  1900, 

an    Australian    Federal    Parliament    was    established. 

The  women  of  all  of  the  six  colonies  voted  for  the  par- 

*  Woman  Suffrage  in  Australia,  by  Vida  Goldstein. 
E 


50      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

liaraentary  officers  on  an  equality  with  men.  Here 
was  a  curious  thing  —  the  women  of  the  four  con- 
servative colonies  voted  for  the  members  of  the  Federal 
ParHament  but  could  not  vote  for  the  state  legislature. 
On  the  basis  of  the  documents  dealing  with  Vic- 
toria I  shall  give  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  his- 
tory of  woman's  suffrage  in  this  colony.  The  greatest 
statesman  of  Victoria,  George  Higinbotham,  in  1873 
introduced  the  first  woman's  suffrage  bill  before  Par- 
liament. This  met  with  no  success.  A  number  of 
similar  attempts  were  made  until  1884.  In  this  year 
there  was  founded  the  first  "Woman's  Suffrage  So- 
ciety" in  Victoria.  The  movement  then  spread  rapidly, 
and  in  1891  thirty  thousand  women  petitioned  ParHa- 
ment for  the  suffrage  in  state  affairs.  For  the  time 
being  this  attempt  likewise  met  with  failure.  But  the 
political  organization  of  the  women  was  strengthened 
through  the  formation  of  the  "United  Council  for 
Woman's  Suffrage."  Every  year  after  1895  this 
Council  gave  advice  to  the  Lower  House  concerning 
the  framing  of  woman's  suffrage  bills,  and  thus  en- 
larged its  influence.  Hitherto  the  passing  of  the 
suffrage  bill  had  been  prevented  by  the  opposition  of 
the  Upper  House  (which  was  not  chosen  by  universal 
suffrage).  On  November  18,  1908,  the  bill  was  finally 
passed  by  the  House  of  Obstruction,  and  thus  the 
women,  who  had  worked  for  the  suffrage,  were  finally 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  5 1 

emancipated.  Since  1893,  the  year  of  the  emancipa- 
tion of  women  in  New  Zealand,  the  opponents  of 
woman's  suffrage  put  off  the  women  with  the  request 
to  wait  and  see  how  the  plan  worked  in  New  Zealand ; 
in  1896  the  women  were  asked  to  wait  and  see  how  the 
plan  worked  in  New  South  Wales ;  in  1902  they  were 
asked  to  see  how  woman's  suffrage  worked  in  the 
federal  elections.  In  1908  it  was  possible  to  secure 
only  3500  signatures  against  woman's  suffrage. 

In  New  Zealand  the  women  have  exercised  active 
suffrage  since  1893.  There  also,  the  gloomiest  pre- 
dictions were  made  when  this  "unprecedented"  meas- 
ure was  adopted.  There  were,  of  course,  women 
opponents  of  woman's  suffrage.  Such,  for  example, 
was  Mrs.  Seddon,  the  wife  of  the  Prime  Minister  of 
New  Zealand.  She  said:  "It  seemed  to  me  that  the 
women  ought  to  remain  away  from  the  tumult  and 
riotous  scenes  of  the  polling  booths.  But  I  gave  up 
this  view.  With  us,  the  women  benefited  the  suffrage 
and  the  suffrage  benefited  the  women.  The  elections 
have  taken  place  more  quietly  and  women  have  indi- 
cated a  lively  interest  in  public  affairs. 

"Woman's  suffrage  has  not  caused  family  dissen- 
sions. It  has  frequently  happened  that  whole  famiUes 
have  voted  for  the  same  candidate.  In  other  cases 
different  members  of  one  family  voted  for  different 
candidates.    But  this  has  not  disturbed  domestic  tran- 


52      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

quillity,  for  nowhere  have  family  feuds  been  engendered 
by  one  member  or  another  of  the  family  boasting  of 
the  success  of  his  candidate.  The  fear  that  the  women 
would  vote  largely  for  Conservative  candidates,  through 
the  influence  of  the  clergy,  was  not  realized.  Already 
the  women  have  twice  contributed  to  the  reelection 
of  a  Liberal  minister.  Neither  the  Protestant  nor  the 
Catholic  clergy  endeavored  to  influence  the  votes  of 
the  women  anywhere."  The  Countess  Wachtmeister, 
a  Californian  traveling  in  Australia,  confirms  this 
opinion,  "Thanks  to  woman's  suffrage  the  respectable 
elements  that  formerly  often  remained  away  from  the 
political  arena  have  now  again  stepped  to  the  front; 
they  have  presented  successful  candidates,  and  have 
begun  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  political  life  of 
the  country." 

Since  women  have  exercised  the  right  to  vote  in 
New  Zealand  the  following  legal  reforms  have  been 
enacted : 

1.  Divorces  are  granted  to  the  wdfe  and  to  the  hus- 

band upon  the  same  groimds. 

2.  The  husband  can  no  longer  deprive  the  wife  and 

children  of  their  inheritances  by  means  of  a 
will. 

3.  The  conditions  of  suffrage  in  municipal  elections 

were  made  the  same  for  both  women  and 
men. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  53 

4.  The  saloons  are  closed  on  election  days. 

5.  Women  are  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law. 

6.  The  age  of  consent  for  girls  was  raised  to  17. 
Similar  reforms  were  enacted  in   South  Australia. 

There  Mrs.  Mary  Lee  is  the  leader  in  the  woman's 
suffrage  movement,  and  founder  of  the  "Women's 
Suffrage  Society."  When  the  woman's  suffrage  bill 
was  passed  in  1895  the  Prime  Minister,  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  and  the  Lord  Mayor  gave  Mrs. 
Lee  an  impressive  reception  in  the  town  hall;  they 
thanked  her  for  the  untiring  efforts  which  she  had 
devoted  to  the  cause,  and  the  Prime  Minister  said, 
"Mrs.  Lee  is  the  originator  of  the  greatest  reforms  in 
the  constitutional  history  of  Australia."  What  en- 
lightened views  the  ministers  in  the  antipodal  countries 
do  have !  Are  they  really  our  antiscians  to  such  a 
degree  ? 

Since  1896,  the  following  reforms  have  been  effected 
by  the  South  Australian  Parliament : 

1.  A  modification  of  the  marriage  law  (the  husband 

must  provide  for  the  wife  and  children  if  his 
brutality  leads  to  a  divorce).  An  enlarge- 
ment of  woman's  sphere  in  the  business 
world.     Separate  property  rights. 

2.  Greater  strength  was  given  to  the  law  compelling 

the  father  of  illicit  children  to  fulfill  his 
pecuniary  duties. 


54      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

3.  A  severer  penalty  for  trafficking  in  girls. 

4.  The  increasing  of  the  age  of  consent  to  17. 

5.  Improved  laws  providing  for  the  care  of  depend- 

ent children. 

6.  A  maximum  working  week  of  52  hours  for  chil- 

dren engaged  in  industry. 

7.  Laws  suppressing  pornography. 

8.  Laws  prohibiting  the  sale  of  liquor  and  tobacco 

to  children. 

9.  Women  were  appointed  to  the  positions  of  in- 

spectors of  schools,  prisons,  hospitals,  etc. 

In  West  Australia,  where  women  have  voted  since 
1899,  the  women  were  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law; 
the  age  of  consent  was  raised  to  17  years;  and  the 
conditions  on  which  divorce  are  granted  were  made 
the  same  for  man  and  woman.  In  Europe  people  still 
question  the  practical  value  of  woman's  suffrage. 

Following  the  establishment  of  woman's  suffrage  in 
New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania,  juvenile  courts  were 
introduced;  New  South  Wales  adopted  a  very  strin- 
gent law  regulating  the  sale  of  liquor  (local  option ;  no 
barmaids  under  21  years  could  be  employed;  the  sale 
of  liquors  to  children  under  14  years  was  prohibited). 

Since  women  have  voted  in  the  elections  for  the 
Federal  Parliament  they  have  formed  the  Australian 
Woman's  Political  Association.  The  President  is  Miss 
Vida    Goldstein,    of    Victoria.    To    the    Association 


THE   GERMANIC  COUNTRIES  $$ 

belong  woman's  suffrage  leagues,  woman's  trade- 
unions,  temperance  societies,  woman's  church  clubs, 
and  other  organizations.  For  the  present  the  women 
will  not  ally  themselves  with  any  of  the  existing  parties, 
since  the  principles  of  none  of  them  correspond  exactly 
to  the  programme  which  the  women  have  set  up. 
The  "Political  Equality  League"  is  satisfactory  in  one 
respect  (equal  rights  for  both  sexes),  but  goes  too  far 
in  its  socialistic  demands. 

The  women  have  succeeded  in  having  federal  laws 
enacted  providing  that  all  state  employees  be  paid 
the  same  wages  for  the  same  work,  and  that  the  legal 
provisions  for  naturalization  permit  woman  to  retain 
her  right  of  self-government  and  her  individuality. 
The  government  will  propose  a  federal  law  securing 
imiformity  in  the  marriage  laws  (laws  in  regard  to 
marriage,  property,  divorce,  and  parental  authority). 

In  all  the  Australian  colonies  women  have  active 
suffrage,  but  not  in  all  cases  the  passive.  Wherever 
they  possess  the  latter  they  have  laid  little  claim  to  it : 

1.  because  a  part  of    the  capable  women  believe 

they  can  work  more  effectively  and  achieve 
more  if  they  are  not  attached  to  a  political 
party ; 

2.  because  the  established  party  programmes  very 

frequently  embody  the  demands  of  the 
women ; 


56      THE    MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

3.  because  for  this  reason  the  political  parties  expect 

no  special  advantage  from  the  women,  and 
it  is  difl5cult  to  secure  the  support  of  the 
great  party  papers  for  the  women  candi- 
dates ; 

4.  because  the  Australian  elections  also  cost  money, 

and  the  capable  women  are  not  always 
well-to-do. 

In  1903,  Miss  Vida  Goldstein  announced  her  candi- 
dature for  the  Federal  Parliament  and  was  defeated. 
In  the  federal  elections  of  1906  on  an  average  58.36 
per  cent  of  the  registered  men  and  43.30  per  cent  of 
the  registered  women  voted  (against  53.09  and  30.96 
per  cent  in  1903), 

In  two  pamphlets,  —  Woman's  Suffrage  in  New 
Zealand,  and  Woman's  Suffrage  in  Australia,^  —  the 
leading  men  of  the  youngest  region  of  the  world 
have  given  their  written  testimony  on  the  practical 
workings  of  woman's  suffrage.  These  men  are  prime 
ministers  of  the  colonies,  public  prosecutors,  the 
ministers  of  the  various  state  departments,  members 
of  the  lower  houses  in  the  parliaments,  high  dignitaries 
of  the  Church,  the  editors  of  large  political  newspapers. 
They  all  make  the  most  favorable  statements  concern- 
ing woman's  suffrage. 

'  Both  published  in  Rotterdam,  92  Kniiskade,  International  Woman's 
Suffrage  Alliance. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  57 

"The  women  have  demanded  nothing  unreasonable 
from  their  representatives,  and  have  always  placed 
themselves  on  the  side  of  clean  politics  and  clean 
politicians."  "Woman's  suffrage  has  brought  about 
neither  the  millennium  nor  pandemonium,"  and  the 
New  Zealanders  do  not  understand  why  it  is  that  in 
other  countries  people  "can  still  become  agitated  over 
anything  so  inherently  reasonable  as  woman's  suffrage." 

All  who  A\ash  to  have  the  right  to  participate  in  a 
discussion  on  woman's  suffrage  must  first  study  these 
two  books  of  testimonials.  A  mere  knowledge  of  these 
facts  will  cause  much  insipid  discussion  to  cease  in 
public  meetings. 

From  the  French  consul  in  Dantzig,  Count  Jouflfroy 
d'Abbans,  one  familiar  with  Australian  conditions,  I 
learned  the  following  isolated  facts  concerning  woman's 
suffrage.  It  has  a  salutary  influence  throughout. 
Women  show  a  lively  interest  in  political  and  municipal 
questions;  for  the  sake  of  their  political  rights  they 
neglect  their  "specifically  feminine"  duties  so  little 
that  they  come  to  the  parliamentary  sessions  with 
knitting,  embroidery,  and  sewing.  They  also  engage 
in  these  feminine  activities  while  attending  the  night 
sessions.  On  election  days  there  is  certainly  often  a 
cold  dinner  or  supper.  But  that  occurs  on  washing 
days,  too,  and  no  one  has  yet  wished  to  deny  women 
the  privilege  of  doing  the  washing.    It  is  safe  to  say 


58      THE  MODERN  WOMAN's  RIGHTS  MOVEMENT 

that  the  Australian  woman's  rights  movement  will  not 
fail  because  of  this  obstacle. 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

Total  population :  41,605,220. 
Women:  21,441,911. 

Men:  20,163,309. 

English  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

*' England  is  the  storm  center  of  our  movement," 
declared  the  President  of  the  International  Woman's 
Suffrage  Alliance  in  the  Amsterdam  Congress,  This 
was  the  conviction  of  the  Congress,  which  therefore 
resolved  to  hold  the  next  International  Woman's  Suf- 
frage Congress  in  London  (in  April,  1909).  The  fact 
is  undisputed  that  the  English  suffragettes  —  whether 
one  favors  or  opposes  their  actions  —  have  made  Great 
Britain  the  center  of  the  modem  woman's  rights  move- 
ment. England  is  a  European  country,  an  old  coim- 
try  with  rigid  traditions,  which,  nevertheless,  are  the 
freest  political  traditions  that  we  have  in  Europe  to- 
day. For  fifty  years  the  English  women  have  struggled 
for  the  right  to  vote.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  their 
country  has  neither  Salic  Law  nor  continental  milita- 
rism (two  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  all  woman's  rights 
movements),  the  English  women  have  not  as  yet  at- 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         $g 

tained  their  ends.  This  is  an  indication  of  the  tenacity 
of  the  prejudices  against  women  in  the  countries  of 
older  civilizations. 

The  opposition  offered  to  the  political  emancipation 
of  women  in  England  is  all  the  more  remarkable  since 
the  English  women  were  able  to  exercise  the  right  to 
vote  on  an  equality  with  men  in  national  elections  till 
1832,  and  in  municipal  elections  till  1835.^  To  that 
time  we  find  the  same  conditions  prevailing  in  England 
as  prevailed  in  the  nine  American  commonwealths 
previous  to  1783.  This  parity  of  circumstances  is 
explained  by  the  English  principle  of  representation : 
no  taxation  without  representation.  In  1832  and  1835, 
however,  the  English  women,  who  as  taxpayers  were 
qualified  to  vote,  had  the  right  to  vote  in  national  and 
municipal  affairs  taken  from  them;  for  the  word 
"persons"  the  expression  "male  persons"  was  sub- 
stituted in  the  election  law.  When  this  disfranchise- 
ment took  place  none  of  those  concerned  cried  out 
against  it.  For  two  hundred  years  the  women  had 
made  no  use  worth  mentioning  of  the  right  to  vote. 
But  a  part  of  the  women,  especially  those  of  the  liberal 
and  cultured  circles,  saw  the  significance  of  this  retro- 
grade step. 

The  political  struggles  of  general  concern  during  the 

1  Consult  HeleQ  Blackburn,  Eislory  of  Woman's  Suffrage  in  Eng- 
land. 


6o      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

following  period  (such  as  the  antislavery  movement  and 
the  anticorn-law  movement)  furnished  these  women 
an  opportunity  to  educate  themselves  in  political 
affairs,  and,  like  the  American  women  of  that  time,  they 
in  many  cases  learned  their  political  ABC  by  means 
of  the  same  questions.  Such  men  as  Cobden,  Pease, 
Biggs,  Knight,  and  others  were  the  advance  guard  of 
the  political  women  in  England.  The  earliest  pam- 
phlet on  women's  suffrage  preserved  to  us  appeared  in 
1847,  It  is  a  small  leaflet  and  says  among  other  things, 
"As  long  as  both  sexes  and  all  parties  are  not  given  a 
just  representation,  good  government  is  impossible" 
(which  is  a  paraphrase  of  the  American  principle  — 
every  just  government  derives  its  powers  from  the 
consent  of  the  governed).  The  contrary  view  had  been 
stated  in  the  Encydopcedia  Britannica  as  early  as  1842 
by  the  father  of  John  Stuart  Mill:  "It  is  self-evident 
that  all  persons  whose  interests  are  identical  with  those 
of  a  different  class  are  excluded  from  political  represen- 
tation without  injury."  Certainly  from  such  an  arrange- 
ment the  "representatives"  will  suffer  no  injury.  That 
select  group  of  intellectual  women  who  trained  them- 
selves politically  during  the  antislavery  movement 
and  the  struggle  for  free  trade  consisted  of  the  mothers, 
the  sisters,  and  daughters  of  liberal  politicians  and 
academically  trained  men.  Many  of  these  women  were 
themselves   students    and    teachers.    No   antagonism 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  6 1 

ever  existed  in  England  between  the  woman's  suffrage 
movement  and  the  movement  favoring  the  education 
of  woman. 

Such  were  the  conditions  in  1866.  A  new  election 
law  was  to  be  introduced  in  Parliament;  a  new  class 
of  men  was  to  be  granted  the  right  of  suffrage  by  the 
lowering  of  the  property  qualification.  The  women 
decided  to  present  a  petition  to  the  House  of  Commons 
requesting  the  right  to  vote  in  national  elections. 
The  women  had  decided  to  act  thus  publicly  because 
of  the  presence  of  John  Stuart  Mill  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  because  of  an  utterance  of  Disraeli's, 
"In  a  country  in  which  a  woman  can  be  ruler,  peer, 
church  trustee,  owner  of  estates,  and  guardian  of  the 
poor,  I  do  not  see  in  the  name  of  what  principle  the  right 
to  vote  can  be  withheld  from  her."  Four  petitions 
(one  signed  by  1499  women,  one  by  1605  taxpaying 
women,  and  two  more  signed  by  3559  and  3000  men  and 
women)  were  sent  to  the  House  of  Commons ;  and  on 
May  20,  1867,  John  Stuart  Mill,  after  he  had  presented 
the  petitions,  moved  that  the  right  to  vote  be  given  to 
the  qualified  women  taxpayers.  His  motion  was  re- 
jected by  a  vote  of  196  to  73.  Thereupon  there  were 
formed  for  systematic  propaganda,  woman's  suffrage 
societies  in  London,  Edinburgh,  Manchester,  Birming- 
ham, and  Bristol;  these  cities  are  still  the  center  of 
the  movement.     The  new  election  law  gave  women  a 


62      THE   MODERN    WOMAN 's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

further  advantage  —  the  expression  male  person  was 
replaced  with  the  generic  word  "man."  ^  Since  an  Act 
of  Parliament  (13  and  14  Vict,,  c.  21)  declares  that  in 
all  laws  the  masculine  expression  also  includes  the 
feminine,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly  stated,  the 
friends  of  woman's  suffrage  believed  they  could  inter- 
pret this  expression  in  favor  of  women.  The  attempt 
to  do  this  was  now  made.  A  niunber  of  qualified  women 
demanded  that  they  be  registered  with  the  voters; 
they  were  determined  to  have  recourse  to  the  law  if 
the  government  commission  refused  to  register  their 
votes.  At  this  time  the  first  public  meeting  of  women 
in  England  was  held  in  the  famous  "Free  Trade  Hall" 
in  Manchester.  But  the  courts  and  the  Supreme 
Court  interpreted  the  law  against  the  women,  —  "they 
are  disqualified  neither  intellectually  nor  morally,  but 
legally."  Then  a  methodical  propaganda  by  means  of 
public  meetings  was  begun ;  the  first  victory  was  won 
as  early  as  1869,  —  the  women  taxpayers  were  given 
the  right  to  vote  in  municipal  affairs  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Wales. 

Between  1870  and  1884,  the  political  organization  of 
the  women  was  strengthened;  the  women  of  the  aris- 
tocracy  (Lady  Amberly,  Lady  Anne   Gore-Langton, 

»  See  the  excellent  little  work  of  Mrs.  C.  C.  Stopes,  "The  Sphere  of 
'Man'  in  the  British  Constitution,"  Votes  /or  Women,  London,  4 
Clement's  Ion. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  63 

and  others)  were  won  over  to  the  cause  of  woman's 
suffrage.  A  "Central  Committee  for  Woman's  Suf- 
frage" was  formed,  and  a  number  of  excellent  women 
speakers  (Biggs,  Maclaren,  Becker,  Fawcett,  Craigen, 
Kingsley,  Tod,  and  others)  spoke  throughout  the  coun- 
try. A  further  success  was  achieved  when  the  Par- 
liament of  the  Isle  of  Man  ^  (House  of  Keys)  gave  quali- 
fied women  the  right  to  vote. 

In  1884,  the  property  quaUfication  was  again  re- 
duced through  a  new  election  law;  the  friends  of 
woman's  suffrage  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
to  present  a  motion  in  Parliament  favoring  woman's 
suffrage,  in  support  of  which  the  following  statements 
were  made:  "Two  milUon  men,  many  of  whom  are 
ignorant  and  uneducated,  and  possess  only  a  small 
plot  of  ground,  are  to  be  given  political  rights.  On 
what  principle  is  the  same  right  withheld  from  300,000 
women  who  are  educated  and  who  are  landowners?" 
This  motion  was  lost  also.  In  1885  the  English 
women,  in  order  to  make  their  influence  felt  in  political 
affairs,  formed  the  "Primrose  League,"  which  supported 
the  Conservative  candidates  in  the  election  campaigns ; 
and  in  1887  was  formed  the  "Women's  Liberal  Fed- 
eration," which  supported  the  Liberals  in  a  similar 
manner.    The  next  attempt  to  secure  woman's  suffrage 

'  In  the  Irish  Sea,  between  Ireland  and  Scotland,  having  a  population 
of  29,272  women  and  25,486  men. 


64      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

was  made  in  1897,  but  it  was  unsuccessful.  During 
the  Boer  War  woman's  suffrage  receded  into  the  back- 
ground, and  not  until  March  14,  1904,  was  a  woman's 
suffrage  bill  again  introduced;  this  bill  did  not  be- 
come law.  At  that  time  the  woman's  suffrage  move- 
ment was  lifeless,  and  in  a  thoroughly  hopeless  con- 
dition. All  the  usual  means  of  propaganda  had  been 
exhausted,  —  meetings,  petitions,  and  personal  work 
during  campaigns  made  no  impressions  either  on  the 
members  of  ParUament,  the  government,  or  on  pubUc 
opinion.  It  was  no  longer  possible  to  educe  argvunents 
against  the  right  of  qualified  women  to  vote  (it  was  not 
a  question  of  universal  suffrage,  but,  just  as  in  the  case 
of  the  men,  it  was  a  matter  of  granting  the  franchise  to 
women  holding  property  in  their  own  name  and  earning 
their  own  living).  Governments,  however,  wish  to  be 
coerced  into  granting  the  franchise,  and  the  representa- 
tives of  the  woman's  suffrage  movement  were  not  de- 
termined enough  to  exercise  the  necessary  coercion. 
Therefore,  the  National  Union  of  Women's  Suffrage 
Societies  transferred  the  leadership  of  the  movement 
to  the  National  Women's  Social  and  PoHtical  Union, 
whose  members  are  known  by  the  name  of  suffragettes. 
This  transference  of  leadership  took  place  during  the^ 
autimm  of  1905. 

The  suffragettes  then  adopted  mihtant  tactics,  mak- 
ing the  government  their  point  of  attack.    This  was 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  65 

a  good  stroke,  for  since  1905  England  has  had  a  Liberal 
Cabinet,  and  several  of  the  ministers  and  over  400  of 
the  600  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  have  de- 
clared themselves  as  friends  of  woman's  suffrage. 
"Then  why  don't  you  grant  us  our  political  freedom?" 
asked  the  suffragettes. 

The  women  are  heads  of  families,  they  pay  rent  and 
taxes,  just  as  the  men.  All  their  conditions  of  Hve- 
lihood  are  as  dependent  upon  the  laws  as  are  those  of 
the  men.  A  liberal  government  and  liberal  members 
of  ParUament  ought  to  be  Uberal  towards  women  and 
grant  them  the  suffrage.  Many  of  these  ministers 
and  many  members  of  ParUament  owe  their  political 
careers,  their  election,  and  their  influence  to  the  prac- 
tical campaign  activities  of  women  or  to  the  woman's 
suffrage  movement,  which  they  supported  in  order  to 
enlarge  their  political  influence.  They  have  made  use 
of  the  woman's  suffrage  movement  and  now  wish  to 
do  nothing  in  return.  The  fate  of  all  woman's  suf- 
frage bilb  introduced  since  1870  (13  in  number)  proves 
that  it  is  hopeless  to  have  such  bills  introduced  by  pri- 
vate members.  Women  must  turn  their  hopes  to  a  bill 
introduced  by  the  government.  The  present  Liberal 
government  needs  only  to  treat  the  matter  seriously; 
then  a  woman's  suffrage  bill  will  be  passed. 

But  the  government  has  not  treated  the  matter 
seriously;    hence  the  suffragettes  have  declared  war. 


66      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

It  is  their  determination  to  fight  every  ministry 
which  is  not  kindly  disposed  toward  the  suffrage 
movement. 

The  struggle  is  carried  on  by  the  following  means : 
organization  of  societies;  meetings  throughout  the 
country;  street  parades  and  open  air  meetings  (es- 
pecially significant  are  those  of  June  13  and  21,  1908); 
the  employment  of  first-class  speakers,  who  make  con- 
cise, clear,  ingenious,  and  stirring  speeches ;  the  raising 
of  large  sums  of  money  (20,000  pounds,  i.e.  $100,000 
annually;  there  is  a  reserve  fund  of  50,000  p)ounds, 
i.e.  $250,000) ;  the  publication  of  a  well- managed 
periodical,  Votes  for  Women.^ 

\K  The  leaders  are  Mrs.  and  Miss  Pankhurst,  Mrs. 
Drummond,  Annie  Kenney,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pethick 
Lawrence.  These  and  the  most  determined  of  their 
associates  undertake  to  send  deputations  to  the  Liberal 
Prime  Minister,  Mr.  Asquith,  and  to  ask  the  question 
in  all  public  meetings  in  which  members  of  the  Cabi- 
net speak,  —  when  will  'you  give  women  the  right  to 
vote  ?  I  .' 

The  deputations  go  to  Parliament  because  women, 
as  taxpayers,  have  the  right  to  speak  to  the  Prime  Minister, 
who  continually  receives  deputations  of  men.  Since 
the  Prime  Minister  does  not  wish  to  grant  women  the 
right  to  vote,  the  deputations  of  women  are  prevented 
>  4  Clement's  Inn,  Strand,  London,  W.C. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES  6j 

from  entering  the  Houses  of  Parliament  by  strong 
squads  of  police,  both  mounted  and  on  foot;  and  if 
the  women  do  not  desist  from  their  attempt  to  make 
known  to  the  Prime  Minister  the  resolutions  of  their 
meeting,  they  are  arrested  for  the  disturbance  of  the 
peace,  the  interruption  of  traffic,  or  the  instigation  of 
timiult  and  riot;  they  are  arraigned  in  the  police 
court  and  are  sentenced  to  imprisonment  in  the  ordinary 
prisons.  The  Liberal  government  stubbornly  refuses 
to  regard  these  women  as  poHtical  offenders  and  to 
punish  them  as  such. 

The  woman's  suffrage  advocates,  who  ask  the  Cab- 
inet members  questions  in  public  meetings,  direct  their 
questions  to  both  friends  and  opponents  of  woman's 
suffrage.  For,  they  inquire,  of  what  use  are  our  friends 
to  us  if  they  do  nothing  for  us?  The  members  of 
the  Enghsh  Cabinet  have  a  joint  responsibility  for 
their  political 'programme.  If  the  friends  of  woman's 
suffrage  treat  the  matter  seriously,  they  must  either 
convert  their  colleagues  or  resign.  As  long  as  they  do 
not  do  that,  they  are  merely  playing  with  woman's 
suffrage  and  the  women  think  it  necessary  to  "heckle" 
them.  The  women  who  ask  the  questions  are  often 
ejected  from  the  meetings  in  a  very  rough  way.^ 

The  suffragettes  give  the  government  conclusive 
proof  of  their  pohtical  power  when  they  oppose  Liberal 
'  See  E.  Robin's  novel,  The  Convert. 


68      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEAIENT 

candidates  at  all  by-elections  and  contribute  to  the 
defeat  of  the  candidates  or  cause  a  reduction  of  their 
votes.  To  the  present  this  has  occurred  in  fourteen 
cases.  It  is  due  to  the  success  of  these  tactics  that  the 
whole  world  is  to-day  speaking  about  woman's  suffrage, 
which  has  become  a  burning  pohtical  question  in  Eng- 
land. All  along  the  people  and  the  press  are  giving 
greater  support  to  the  suffragettes  who  have  the  cour- 
age to  brave  the  horrors  of  the  London  prison,  and 
there  become  acquainted  with  the  distress  of  the  poor, 
the  destitute,  and  the  helpless. 

During  the  last  three  or  four  years  of  the  activity  of 
the  suffragettes  a  great  number  of  woman's  suffrage 
organizations  were  founded:  The  Woman's  Freedom 
League  (Mrs.  Despard),  The  Men's  League  for  Woman's 
Suffrage,  The  Artists'  Suffrage  League,  The  Conserv- 
ative and  Unionist  Women's  Franchise  Association, 
The  Actresses'  Franchise  League,  The  Writers'  League, 
etc.  Scotland  and  Ireland  have  their  own  woman's 
suffrage  associations. 

In  opposition  there  have  been  formed  the  National 
Women's  Antisuffrage  Association  and  a  Men's 
League  for  Opposing  Woman's  Suffrage  (those  are  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  the  aristocratic  circles).  They  declare 
that  woman  does  not  need  the  right  to  vote  since  she 
exercises  an  " enormous^ indirect  influence";  that  wo- 
man does  not  msh  the  right  to  vote;   that  her  sub- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  69 

ordination  is  based  on  natural  law  since  brute  force 
rules  the  world;  woman's  suffrage  would  result  in 
England's  destruction,  if  a  majority  of  women  voters 
(England  has  a  majority  of  women)  were  permitted  to 
decide  questions  concerning  the  army  and  navy. 

The  leader  of  the  suffragettes,  Mrs.  Fawcett,  re- 
cently estabUshed  the  fact  that  the  newly  formed 
Association  has  a  considerably  smaller  number  of 
prominent  names  among  its  members  than  the  organiza- 
tion formed  two  years  ago,  which  soon  came  to  an  in- 
glorious end.  She  emphasized  the  fact  that  the  two 
important  women,  who  at  that  time  still  favored  the 
antisuffrage  movement,  —  Mrs.  Louise  Creighton  and 
Mrs.  Sidney  Webb,  —  have  since  gone  over  to  the 
suffrage  advocates.  On  the  occasion  of  Mrs.  Fawcett's 
pubhc  debate  with  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward,  the  leader  of 
the  antisuffragists  (in  February,  1909),  it  happened 
that  235  of  those  present  favored  woman's  suffrage  and 
74  were  opposed. 

The  argument  against  the  brute  force  statement 
was  treated  in  three  excellent  articles  in  Votes  for 
Women  under  the  title  "The  Physical  Force  Fallacy."^ 
The  most  influential  of  the  English  women,  together 
with  the  women  in  the  industries,  the  students  of  both 
sexes,  the  workingwomen,  —  in  short,  the  intellectual 
and  professional  women  are  in  favor  of  the  suffragettes ; 
1  By  Lawrence  Housman,  Feb.  11, 18,  and  26, 1909. 


70      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

and  the  woman's  suffrage  advocates  have  "the  spiritual 
certainty"  that  moves  mountains.  Let  no  one  beheve 
that  the  appeals  made  on  the  streets,  the  parades  of  the 
women  as  sandwich-men,  or  the  noisy  publicity  of  their 
tactics  are  gladly  indulged  in  by  the  women.  These 
actions  are  entirely  opposed  to  woman's  nature.  But 
the  women  have  recognized  that  these  tactics  are  neces- 
sary and  they  act  accordingly  because  it  is  their  duty. 
Such  movements  have  always  been  successful. 

Women  do  not  possess  the  right  to  vote  in  parlia- 
mentary elections ;  but,  if  taxpayers,  they  can  vote  in 
municipal  affairs  in  the  whole  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  The  married  women  of  England  and  Wales 
have  a  restricted  right  of  suffrage,  however:  they  are 
"persons"  and  therefore  voters  in  parochial  elections, 
in  the  election  of  poor-law  administrators,  and  of  urban 
and  rural  district  councillors ;  but  they  are  not  regarded 
as  "persons"  and  are  not  voters  in  elections  for  the 
borough  and  county  councils.  In  one  single  case,  in 
the  County  of  London,  by  the  law  of  1900,  married 
women  were  given  almost  the  same  rights  as  those 
exercised  by  married  women  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.^ 
The  right  of  single  or  married  women  to  hold  office 
(passive  suffrage)  ^  has  prevailed  in  England  and  Wales 

1  See  E.  C.  Wolstenholme  Elmy,  Women's  Franchise,  the  Need  0}  the 
Hour. 

*  Wolstenholme  Elmy,  ibid. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  7 1 

since  1869  in  respect  to  the  offices  of  guardians  of  the 
poor,  overseers,  waywardens,  churchwardens,  —  and 
since  1870  (Education  Act)  in  respect  to  school  boards.^ 
At  the  very  first  school  elections  women  were  elected, 
which  induced  women  to  have  themselves  presented 
also  as  candidates  for  the  offices  of  poor-law  adminis- 
trators. In  1875  the  first  unmarried  woman  was  elected 
to  that  office,  the  first  married  woman  in  188 1.  In 
the  discharge  of  their  duties  in  both  classes  of  offices  the 
women  have  acted  admirably.  Nevertheless,  the  reac- 
tionary Education  Act  of  June,  1903,  took  away  from 
the  women  the  right  to  hold  office  as  members  of  school 
boards  in  the  County  of  London.  They  can  still  secure 
administrative  offices  by  governmental  appointment, 
but  no  longer  by  an  election.  In  1888  were  created 
the  county  coimcils  for  England  and  Wales ;  the  county 
councils  were  at  the  same  time  organs  for  the  self- 
governing  municipalities.  Since  this  law,  like  those 
of  1869  and  1870,  did  not  specially  exclude  women  from 
the  right  to  hold  office,  two  women,  Mrs.  Cobden  and 
Lady  Sandhurst,  presented  themselves  as  candidates  for 
the  office  of  county  councillors  of  London.  They 
were  elected.  Thereupon  Mrs.  Beresford-Hope,  whom 
Lady  Sandhurst  had  defeated,  contested  the  legality 
of  the  election.  In  1889,  the  Court  of  Appeals  declared 
that  women  were  eligible  to  public  office  only  when  this 

1  This  right  is  possessed  by  women  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  also. 


72      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

is  expressly  stated}  This  decision  of  the  Court,  which 
was  in  conflict  with  the  English  Constitution,  also 
brought  about  the  loss  of  the  right  of  the  women  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland  to  hold  office  as  county  councillors. 

As  a  result  of  this  judicial  decision,  when  the  new 
Local  Self-government  Act  for  England  and  Wales  was 
enacted  (1894),  it  was  necessary  expressly  to  state  the 
eligibility  of  women  (unmarried  and  married)  to  hold 
the  minor  local  ofl&ces  (parish,  urban,  rural  district 
councillors,  poor-law  guardians,  etc.).  Article  22, 
however  (in  spite  of  historical  precedents),  excluded 
women  from  the  office  of  justice  of  the  peace.  In  1894 
the  same  thing  occurred  in  Scotland,  and  in  1898  in 
Ireland. 

In  1899,  the  attempt  to  secure  the  eligibility  of  women 
to  the  metropolitan  borough  councils  (for  London 
only)  ^  failed,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  House  of 
Lords. 

The  law  of  1907,^  known  as  the  Qualification  of 
Women  Act,  grants  unmarried  women  the  right  to  hold 
office  in  the  borough  and  county  councils  (councillor, 
alderman,  mayor).  Married  women  have  this  right 
only  in  the  County  of  London;    elsewhere  they  can 

1  This  is  in  "direct  conflict  with  the  statute  (13  Vict.,  c.  21,  sec.  4)  pro- 
viding that  women  enjoy  all  those  rights  from  which  thej'  are  not  ex- 
pressly excluded. 

'  London,  like  other  capital  cities,  is  regulated  by  a  separate  set  of  laws. 

*  Applying  to  England  and  Wales. 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  73 

merely  vote  for  these  officers.^  On  the  occasion  of  the 
first  elections  under  this  act  twelve  women  presented 
themselves  as  candidates;  six  were  elected  (one  as 
mayor) ;  hitherto  the  women  had  been  elected  only  in 
small  places,  and  then  owing  to  exceptional  circum- 
stances. Whoever  investigates  the  struggle  of  the 
women  to  secure  their  rights  in  the  local  government 
and  studies  the  attitude  of  the  men  toward  these  ex- 
ceedingly just  demands  will  comprehend  the  exas- 
perating circumstances  under  which  the  women  are 
to-day  struggling  for  the  right  to  vote  in  the  EngHsh 
parliamentary  elections.  In  questions  of  power  and 
of  gaining  a  livelihood  [Macht-  und  Brotfragen]  the 
nobiUty  of  man  can  really  not  be  depended  upon. 

The  woman's  suffrage  movement  has  led  to  the  con- 
summation of  a  number  of  legal  reforms :  the  property 
laws  now  legalize  the  separation  of  the  property  of 
husband  and  wife  ^ ;  in  the  United  Kingdom  the  wife 
administers  her  own  property  and  disposes  of  it,  and 
has  full  control  over  her  earnings.  The  remainder 
of  the  laws  regulating  marriage  are  still  rather  rigorous, 
—  in  England  at  least ;  the  wife  has  no  hereditary  right 
to  her  husband's  property.  If  she  economizes  in  the 
administration  of  the  household,  the  savings  belong 
to  the  husband.     The  \vife  cannot  demand  any  pay  in 

1  The  right  to  vote  is  a  condition  necessary  for  the  holding  of  office. 
'  See  the  Married  Women's  Property  Acts  of  1870  and  1883. 


74      THE    MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

money  for  performing  her  domestic  duties;  the  mere 
expenses  of  maintenance  are  sufficient  remuneration, 
etc.  In  normal  cases  the  father  alone  has  authority 
over  the  children.  It  is  made  very  difficult  for  a 
woman  to  secure  a  divorce,  etc.^ 

The  women  that  have  labored  so  untiringly  in  po- 
litical affairs  have  very  naturally  made  it  a  point  to 
promote  the  educational  opportunities  of  their  sex. 
Since  1870,  the  elementary  school  system  has  been 
regulated  by  the  school  boards,  which  have  introduced 
obligatory  public  instruction.  In  these  institutions 
the  boys  and  girls  are  segregated  (except  in  the  rural 
districts).  On  an  average  there  is  one  male  teacher 
to  every  three  women  teachers  in  these  institutions. 
The  secondary  schools  are  private,  as  in  Australia. 
Hence  it  was  not  necessary  for  the  English  women  to 
wrest  every  concession  from  a  reluctant  government 
(as  was  the  case  in  Germany) ;  but  private  initiative, 
combined  with  the  devotion  of  private  individuals, 
made  possible  in  a  few  years  the  full  reorganization  of 
England's  institutions  of  learning  for  girls.  This 
reorganization  began  in  1868  and  led  to  the  following 
results:  the  establishment  of  higher  institutions  of 
learning  in  all  English  cities  (these  are  called  girls'  pub- 
lic day  schools,  most  of  them  being  day  schools.    They 

1  See  the  article  by  Mr.  Pethick  Lawrence  in  Votes  Jot  Women,  March 
3,1909- 


THE   GERMANIC  COUNTRIES  75 

are  governed  by  committees  consisting  of  the  founders, 
the  principals,  and  the  qualified  advisers).  Latin  and 
mathematics  are  obligatory  studies  in  the  curriculum. 
The  schools  are  in  close  relationship  with  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  universities,  the  universities  inspecting  the 
schools  and  supervising  the  various  examinations  (in- 
cluding the  examinations  of  the  students  upon  leaving 
the  schools).  In  England  these  schools  are  for  girls 
only ;  in  Scotland,  girls  attend  similar  schools  which  are 
coeducational.  The  number  of  women  teachers  is 
estimated  at  8000. 

Admission  to  the  universities  was  secured  with  diflS- 
culty  by  the  women.  At  first  a  number  of  women 
requested  the  privilege  of  attending  lectures  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Since  these  uni- 
versities are  resident  colleges,  it  was  necessary  to  pro- 
vide boarding  places  for  women.  This  was  done  in  1869 
and  1870  in  both  places,  through  the  work  of  Miss 
Emily  Davies  and  Miss  Anna  Clough.  Both  of  these 
beginnings  developed  into  the  women's  colleges  of 
Girton  and  Newnham.  Since  then,  St.  Margaret's 
Hall,  Somersville  Hall,  and  HoUoway  College  have 
been  established  for  women.  These  institutions  cor- 
respond to  the  German  philosophical  faculties  [the 
colleges  of  literature  and  liberal  arts  in  the  United 
States].  An  entrance  examination  is  necessary  for 
admission.    The  course  of  study  is  three  years.    The 


76      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

final  examination,  called  "  tripos,"  embraces  three 
subjects ;  it  corresponds  to  the  German  Oberlehrerexa- 
men,  —  examinations  given  to  candidates  for  the  posi- 
tion of  teachers  in  the  Gymnasiums,  the  Realgymnasi- 
ums,  Oberrealgymnasiums,  etc.  Theology,  medicine,  and 
law  cannot  be  studied  in  these  woman's  colleges  (any 
more  than  in  the  American  woman's  colleges).  Part 
of  the  teachers  live  in  the  woman's  college  buildings ; 
part  of  them  belong  to  the  faculties  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  The  former  are  w^omen  tutors  and  pro- 
fessors. 

The  English  colleges  for  women  are  maintained  by 
private  funds.  Many  women  not  wishing  to  take  the 
"tripos"  examination  or  to  become  teachers  attend 
the  university  to  acquire  a  higher  education.  Others 
prepare  themselves  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
Master  of  Arts,  or  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  These 
examinations  are  accepted  by  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
universities,  but  the  women  are  not  granted  the  corre- 
sponding titles,  because  the  use  of  such  titles  would 
make  the  women  Fellows  of  the  University,  which  would 
entitle  them  to  the  use  of  the  university  gardens  and 
parks,  and  to  live  in  one  of  the  colleges.  All  other 
universities  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  with  the 
exception  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  admit  women  to 
all  departments,  accepting  their  examinations  and 
granting  them  academic  degrees. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  77 

The  women's  colleges  are  centers  of  sport,  —  inci- 
dentally they  possess  their  own  fire  department.  To 
arouse  an  interest  in  political  affairs  and  to  develop 
facility  in  speaking,  debating  clubs  have  been  organized. 
More  than  1300  women  have  graduated  from  Cambridge, 
and  more  than  1200  from  the  University  of  London. 
When  Mary  Putnam  wished  to  study  medicine  in  1868, 
she  had  to  go  to  Paris.  Jex  Blake,  who  attempted  the 
same  thing  in  Edinburgh  in  1869,  was  driven  out  by  the 
students.  She  went  to  London  and  was  there  at  first 
given  instruction  by  the  noble  Dr.  Anstie.  As  early  as 
1870  there  was  formed  in  London  a  special  School  of 
Medicine  for  women,  to  which  a  hospital  for  women  was 
later  attached,  being  directed  and  supported  entirely 
by  women  physicians.  To-day,  553  women  doctors  are 
practicing  in  Great  Britain.  Of  these  538  have  ex- 
pressed themselves  in  favor  of,  and  15  against,  woman's 
suffrage.  In  England,  women  were  first  permitted  to 
take  the  public  examination  in  dental  surgery  as  late 
as  1908  ;  while  the  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Irish  Royal 
Colleges  of  Surgeons  had  admitted  them  long  before. 
Women  can  study  law  in  England,  but  as  yet  they  have 
not  been  admitted  to  the  bar.  If  this  privilege  were 
granted  to  women,  they  would  have  to  affiliate  with 
the  London  lawyers'  associations,  such  as  the  Inner 
Temple,  the  Middle  Temple,  Gray's  Inn,  etc.  Members 
of  these  organizations  must  several  times  a  month 


78      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

attend  the  dinners  or  banquets  of  the  lawyers.  These 
corporate  customs  of  the  English  Bar  are  said  to  exclude 
women  from  the  legal  profession  just  as  similar  customs 
have  excluded  them  from  tutorships  and  professorships 
in  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

In  spite  of  this,  Miss  Cave  recently  sought  admis- 
sion to  Gray's  Inn,  but  was  refused  because  she  was  a 
woman.  She  appealed  her  case  to  the  Lords  of  Appeal 
in  Ordinary,  but  they  declared  that  they  had  no 
jurisdiction;  the  matter  will  be  pursued  further. 
The  first  woman  preacher  in  England,  a  native  of 
Germany,  Miss  v.  Petzold,  studied  theology  in  Ger- 
many and  graduated  there.  After  her  trial  sermon  in 
Leicester  she  was  elected  in  preference  to  her  male 
competitors.  Later  she  accepted  a  call  to  Chicago. 
The  Congregationalists  have  four  women  preachers; 
the  Salvation  Army  over  3000.  Except  in  those  call- 
ings where  personal  ability  is  determinative,  the 
salaries  of  English  women  are  lower  than  those  of  the 
men.  The  women  have  a  large  field  for  their  efforts 
in  the  public  schools  (where  there  are  three  women 
teachers  to  one  man  teacher).  In  the  secondary  schools 
for  girls,  instruction  and  control  are  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  women;  their  salaries  are  quite  sufficient 
(the  minimum  being  100  pounds  sterling,  about  $500). 
As  we  have  seen,  the  higher  institutions  of  learning 
also  offer  the  women  well-paid  positions  (the  tutors 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  79 

being  paid  $2000,  with  board  and  lodging;  the  prin- 
cipals $2500). 

The  well-paid  civil  ofl5ces  are  reserved  for  the  men. 
Although  there  are  more  women  teachers  and  more 
female  students  in  the  schools  than  males,  there  are 
244  male  inspectors  of  pubUc  schools  and  18  women 
inspectors;  the  male  inspector-general  is  paid  1000 
pounds  sterling  annually,  the  woman  inspector-general 
500  poimds.  In  the  secondary  schools  there  are  20 
male  inspectors  and  3  women  inspectors  with  annual 
salaries  of  400  to  800  pounds,  and  300  pounds  re- 
spectively. The  women  teachers  of  the  elementary 
schools  (of  whom  there  are  approximately  111,000) 
draw  on  an  average  two  thirds  the  salary  of  the  men 
teachers,  though  they  have  the  same  training  and  do 
the  same  amount  of  work. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are  two  million  women 
engaged  in  industry,  there  are  900  male  factory  in- 
spectors and  hardly  60  female  factory  inspectors. 
Here  again  the  men  are  paid  1000  pounds  and  the 
women  only  500  pounds  a  year.  In  the  postal  and 
telegraph  service  the  same  injustice  exists :  the  men 
begin  with  a  minimum  wage  of  20  shillings  a  week, 
while  the  women  are  paid  14  shillings;  the  men  in- 
crease their  salaries  to  62  shillings  a  week ;  the  women 
to  30  shillings.  The  male  telegraph  operator  begins 
with  18  shillings  and  is  finally  given  65  shillings  a 


8o      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

week;  the  woman  telegraph  operator  begins  with  i6 
and  reaches  40  shillings.  The  male  clerks  of  the 
second  division  of  the  civil  service  are  paid  250  pounds 
and  the  women  100  annually.  In  1908,  the  number 
of  women  employees  in  the  postal  and  telegraph  service 
of  Great  Britain  was  13,259;  the  number  of  women 
supernumeraries,  30,476 :  total  number,  43,735.  The 
highest  positions  (heads  of  departments,  staff  officers) 
have  been  attained  by  4  women  and  by  178  men. 

In  recent  years  many  new  callings  have  been  opened 
to  women  living  in  the  cities.  They  are  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  confectionery.  Prominent  and 
wealthy  women  have  established  businesses  of  their 
own,  in  which  fine  confections  are  produced,  —  in 
many  cases  by  destitute,  nervous,  and  overworked 
women  music  teachers.  Women  are  active  as  book- 
binders, stockbrokers,  bills  of  exchange  agents,  audi- 
tors, teachers  of  domestic  economy,  instructors  in 
gymnastics,  ladies'  guides,  wardrobe  dealers  (the  costly 
robes  of  the  women  of  fashion  are  sold  on  commission 
through  agents),  paperers  and  decorators,  etc. 

The  Woman's  Institute  ^  has  published  a  complete 
handbook  on  the  occupations  of  women.  This  book 
does  not  omit  the  occupation  of  explorer,  in  which  Mrs. 
French  Sheldon  has  distinguished  herself  (by  ex- 
ploration in  the  interior  of  Africa).     In  London,  the 

^  London,  S.W.,  92  Victoria  Street. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  8 1 

number  of  women  engaged  in  gainful  pursuits  is  natu- 
rally very  large,  many  of  the  women  being  alone  in 
the  world.  The  women  journalists  and  authoresses  in 
London  have  been  numerous  enough  to  organize  a 
club  of  their  own,  —  the  Writers'  Club,  in  the  Strand. 
The  number  of  women  employed  in  commercial  houses 
is  very  large,  —  450,000.  The  weekly  wages,  especially 
the  wages  of  the  saleswomen  in  the  shops,  are  often 
quite  moderate,  20  to  25  shillings  where  exceptional 
demands  are  made  as  to  attractive  dress  and  appear- 
ance. The  women  have  organized  the  Shop  Assist- 
ants' Union.  For  women  with  this  weekly  wage  the 
securing  of  good  rooms  and  board  at  a  reasonable 
price  is  a  vital  question.  There  are  three  apart- 
ment houses  for  workingwomen,  —  the  Sloane  Garden 
Houses,  and  the  apartments  for  women  in  Chenies 
Street  and  in  York  Street.  Women  teachers,  de- 
signers, artists,  bookkeepers,  cashiers,  secretaries  and 
stenographers  obtain  room  and  board  here  at  varying 
rates.  There  are  bedrooms  (with  two  beds)  for  43/2 
to  5  shillings  a  week  for  each  person,  furnished  rooms 
for  10  to  14  shillings.  The  dining  room  is  a  restaurant. 
Only  the  evening  meal,  dinner  (served  from  6  to  7),  is 
served  to  all  at  once.  This  meal  costs  10  pence  (20 
cents).  In  Chenies  Street  living  expenses  are  some- 
what higher:  6  pence  for  breakfast,  9  pence  for 
luncheon,  i  shilling  for   dinner;    which   is   about   55 


82      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

cents  a  day  for  board.  For  suites  of  two  to  four  rooms 
$15  to  S30  a  month  is  charged.  The  Alexandra  House 
in  Kensington  offers  women  artists  similar  privileges; 
the  Brabanzon  House  (under  the  protection  of  the 
Countess  of  Meath)  accommodates  employees  of  the 
shops  only.  Since  the  English  women  are  —  for- 
tunately —  independent  in  spirit,  these  institutions 
lack  the  scholastic,  monastic,  or  tutelary  characteristics 
that  are  unfortunately  foimd  in  many  similar  institu- 
tions on  the  continent. 

Very  few  of  the  English  women  have  become  indus- 
trial entrepreneurs.  However,  they  have  directed  their 
attention  to  agriculture  as  a  means  of  earning  a  Hveli- 
hood  and  have  organized  agricultural  schools  for 
women.  Here  the  women  engage  especially  in  poultry 
raising,  vegetable  and  fruit  growing,  which  in  Eng- 
land are  very  lucrative ;  England  annually  imports  41 
million  pounds'  worth  of  milk,  eggs,  poultry,  vege- 
tables, and  fruits.  The  councils  of  London,  Berk- 
shire, Essex,  and  Kent  counties  support  the  Horti- 
cultural College  for  women  in  Swanley,  Kent,  which 
was  founded  privately  by  wealthy  and  influential  per- 
sons. In  England  100,000  women  are  engaged  in 
agriculture.  The  demand  for  trained  women  gar- 
deners to-day  still  exceeds  the  supply.  Trained  women 
gardeners  are  frequently  engaged  for  a  long  term  of 
years  to  teach  untrained  gardeners.    Women  are  em- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  83 

ployed  in  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens  in  Kew  and 
in  Edinburgh.  Holloway  College  has  a  woman  gar- 
dener. In  1898  a  model  farm  for  women  was  founded 
by  Lady  Warwick  in  Reading.  The  institution  began 
with  twelve  women  students,  who  cultivated  two  acres 
of  land.  Within  a  year  the  number  of  students  was 
quadrupled;  and  then  eleven  acres  were  cultivated 
instead  of  two. 

The  woman  that  wishes  to  learn  stock  feeding  and 
dairying  is  sent  to  a  special  farm.  The  course  re- 
quires two  years.  The  Agricultural  Association  for 
Women,  founded  by  Lady  War-vvick,  aids  the  women 
agriculturists  and  finds  positions  for  the  pupils.  In 
Great  Britain  there  are  eight  public  schools  in  which 
women  can  learn  agriculture  and  gardening.  Many 
county  councils  have  estabhshed  courses  in  gardening, 
to  which  women  are  admitted. 

Agriculture  is  encouraged  in  England  because  the 
migration  from  the  country  to  the  city  has  increased 
extraordinarily.  Agriculture  is  restricted  in  favor  of 
stock  raising,  which  gives  employment  to  fewer  laborers 
than  agriculture.  In  spite  of  the  great  increase  in 
population,  the  number  of  agriculturists  has  steadily 
decreased  since  1851.  On  the  other  hand,  the  indus- 
trial population  (and  it  is  predominantly  urban)  has 
increased  significantly.  Every  industrialization  means 
a  pauperization  to  a  certain  extent.    It  produces  the 


84      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

army  of  unskilled  laborers,  the  victims  of  the  sweating 
system,  who  in  a  destitute  condition  are  left  to  eke 
out  their  wretched  existence  in  the  "East  Ends"  of 
the  large  cities.  There  is  no  corresponding  misery  in 
the  country  districts.  A  marked  industrialization 
therefore  causes  a  degree  of  general  pauperism  such  as 
is  unknown  in  the  agricultural  regions  of  western 
Europe.  The  pursuit  of  gardening  among  women  has 
a  social-political  significance.  The  EngHsh  laboring 
population  is  estimated  at  4,000,000  people,  among 
whom  the  trade-union  movement  has  made  consider- 
able progress.  The  English  trade-union  statistics  of 
1904  show  148  trade-unions  having  women  members. 
There  are  all  together  125,094  female  members,  i.e.  6.7 
per  cent  of  all  organized  laborers.  The  greatest  num- 
ber of  these  are  in  the  textile  industries  (almost  100,000). 
The  total  number  of  women  laborers  in  this  industry  is 
800,000. 


Men 

Women 

(8HIL.  A  WEEK) 

(8HIL.  A  week) 

Cotton  Industry      .     .     , 

29.6 

18.8 

Woolen  Industry     .     .     . 

26.1 

I3-I 

Lace  Industry     .... 

39-6 

13-5 

Woven  Goods  Industry    . 

31-5 

14-3 

Linen  Industry   .... 

22.4 

10.9 

Jute  Industry      .... 

21.7 

13-5^ 

1  Valuable  information  concerning  women  in  the  industries  is  given  in 
the  programme  of  April  4,  1909,  of  the  London  Congress  of  the  Interna- 
tional Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES         85 

In  the  textile  industry,  in  which  women  are  better 
organized  than  elsewhere  (there  being  96,000),  there 
existed  in  1906  the  preceding  diflference  between  the 
wages  of  men  and  women  (see  table,  p.  84). 

The  organization  of  women  laborers  was  first  advo- 
cated by  Mrs.  Paterson  and  Miss  Simcox  at  the  trade- 
union  congress  held  in  Glasgow  in  1875.  But  this 
organization  is  confronted  with  the  same  difficulties  as 
exist  elsewhere :  the  women  believe  that  they  are 
engaged  in  non-domestic  work  only  temporarily; 
therefore  they  are  interested  in  the  improvement  of 
labor  only  to  a  sHght  degree,  and  in  addition  are 
burdened  with  housework;  while  the  male  laborer  is 
free  when  the  factory  closes.  In  almost  all  indus- 
tries women  are  paid  lower  wages  than  men,  —  partly 
because  those  who  are  poorly  equipped  are  given  the 
lower  grades  of  work  and  are  not  given  an  opportunity 
to  do  the  more  difficult  work;  partly,  too,  because 
they  are  women,  i.e.  people  of  the  second  order. 
Weekly  wages  of  5  to  7  shillings  are  common. 
Naturally,  the  workingwoman  who  is  all  alone  in  the 
world  cannot  exist  on  such  a  sum.  In  one  industry 
only  the  women  are  given  the  same  pay  as  the  men 
for  doing  the  same  work,  —  this  is  the  textile  industry 
in  Lancashire.  Since  1847  this  industry  has  been 
protected  by  a  law  prohibiting  night  work  for  women. 
In  this  industry  men  and  women  laborers  are  organ- 


86      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

ized  in  the  same  trade-union.  The  standard  of  living 
of  the  whole  body  of  workers  is  very  high.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  legislation  for  the  protection  of 
the  laborers  of  this  industry,  in  which  the  exploitation 
of  women  and  children  had  been  carried  to  the  ex- 
treme previous  to  1847,  has  caused  the  raising  of  the 
general  standard  of  living.  Without  the  intervention 
of  law,  exploitation  would  have  been  pursued  further 
in  this  industry.  So  the  English  women  have  before 
them  an  example  of  the  salutary  effect  of  legislation  for 
the  protection  of  the  laborers  in  the  textile  industries. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  in  England  a  faction  among  the 
woman's  rights  advocates  which  vigorously  resists  every 
movement  for  the  protection  of  w^omen  laborers;  it 
has  organized  itself  into  the  ''League  for  Freedom  of 
Labor  Defense."  It  acts  on  the  principle  that  every 
law  for  the  protection  of  women  laborers  signifies  an 
unjustifiable  tutelage ;  that  the  workingwomen  should 
defend  themselves  through  the  organization  of  trade- 
unions;  that  the  laws  for  the  protection  of  women 
laborers  decrease  women's  opportunities  for  work  and 
drive  them  from  their  positions,  which  are  filled  by 
men  (who  can  work  at  night). 

These  fears  are  based  purely  on  theory.  In  prac- 
tice they  are  realized  only  in  entirely  isolated  cases. 
The  truth  is  that  legislation  for  the  protection  of 
women  laborers  (prohibition  of  night  work  and  the  fix- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  87 

ing  of  a  maximum  number  of  work  hours  a  day)  is 
entirely  favorable  to  an  overwhelming  majority  of 
workingwomen.  It  protects  them  against  a  degree  of 
exploitation  that  they  could  not  resist  unaided  because 
the  majority  of  them  are  not  organized,  and  have  no 
power  to  organize  themselves;  they  will  secure  this 
power  only  through  laws  protecting  women  laborers. 
A  comparative  international  study  of  laws  for  the  pro- 
tection of  women  laborers,  published  by  the  Belgian 
department  of  labor/  shows  that  the  number  of  women 
laborers  has  nowhere  decreased,  and  that  wages  have 
not  declined  as  a  result. 

Concerning  this  point  Mrs.  Sidney  Webb  says: 
"In  most  cases  women  cannot  be  replaced  by  men, 
either  because  the  men  are  not  sufficiently  dextrous  or 
because  their  labor  is  too  expensive.  What  employer 
will  pay  a  man  20  to  30  shillings  a  week  when  a  woman 
can  accomplish  just  as  much  for  5  to  12  shillings  a 
week?"  We  shall  return  to  this  subject  in  discussing 
France. 

Those  women  that  are  members  of  trade-unions 
persistently  demand  the  right  to  vote;  many  of  them 
intimate  that  through  this  right  they  expect  to  secure 
an  increase  in  wages.  Naturally  the  wishes  of  women 
laborers  possessing  the  franchise  will  be  considered 
very  differently  from  the  wishes  of  those  not  possessing 

'  Ansiaux,  La  reglemenlation  du  travail  des  fcmmes. 


88      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

this  right.  Proof  of  this  has  been  given  by  the  Ameri- 
can woman's  suffrage  states.  Previous  to  the  debates 
on  woman's  suffrage  in  Parliament  in  1904,  a  deputa- 
tion of  workingwomen  from  the  potteries  in  Stafford- 
shire presented  the  members  of  ParHament  from  that 
district  with  a  petition  having  4000  signatures,  re- 
questing the  introduction  of  a  woman's  suffrage  bill, 
so  that  women  might  not  continue  to  be  excluded  from 
all  well-paid  positions  on  account  of  their  political 
inferiority.  On  this  occasion  the  Hon.  Mr.  A.  L. 
Emmott  (member  of  Parliament  from  the  Oldham 
district)  declared  that  the  salary  of  the  women  em- 
ployees in  the  postal  savings  banks  had  been  reduced 
from  65  pounds  (with  an  annual  increase  of  3  pounds) 
to  55  pounds  (with  an  annual  increase  of  2  pounds, 
10  shilUngs).  This  would  have  been  impossible  if  women 
had  had  the  right  to  vote.  Domestic  servants  are  as  yet 
organized  only  to  a  small  extent,  but  they  are  well 
trained;  they  number  1,331,000. 

In  none  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  countries  of  the  world 
is  there  a  schism  between  the  woman's  rights  move- 
ments of  the  middle  class  and  the  Social-Democrats, 
such  as  is  found  in  Germany,  In  each  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  countries  there  is  a  Socialist,  and  even  an 
Anarchist  party,  but  these  parties  do  not  antagonize 
the  woman's  rights  movement.  The  repubhcan  con- 
stitutions in  America,  —  the  more  democratic  institu- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  89 

tions  of  society,  —  in  general  moderate  the  acute  oppo- 
sition. The  absence  of  historical  obstacles  has  a  con- 
ciliating influence  everywhere  in  these  countries.  In 
England,  where  history,  monarchy,  and  traditional 
class  antagonism  seem  to  give  sociab'sm  favorable  con- 
ditions of  growth,  socialism  has  for  a  long  time  been 
hampered  by  the  trade-unions.  In  other  words,  the 
English  workingmen,  the  first  to  organize  in  Europe, 
had  already  improved  their  condition  greatly  when  the 
socialistic  propaganda  commenced  in  England.  In 
their  trade-unions  they  confined  themselves  to  the 
economic  field;  they  avoided  mixing  economics  with 
pohtics;  they  worked  with  both  parties,  they  steered 
clear  of  class  hatred,  and  it  was  difiicult  to  influence 
them  with  the  speculative  ultimate  aims  of  social 
democracy.  It  has  been  only  in  the  last  decade  that 
social-democracy  has  made  any  progress  in  England ; 
therefore  in  the  woman's  rights  movement  middle-class 
women  and  workingwomen  work  together  peaceably. 

Of  all  the  women  in  Europe  the  EngUsh  women  first 
became  conscious  of  their  duty  toward  the  lower 
classes.  In  this  atmosphere,  —  clubs  and  homes  for 
working  girls,  and  the  London  "College  for  Working 
Women,"  —  institutions  such  as  we  on  the  continent 
know  only  in  isolated  cases  flourished  readily.  These 
institutions  devote  their  attention  to  the  girls  of  the 
lower  ranks  of  society. 


go      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  oldest  club  is  the  "Soho  Club  and  Home  for 
Working  Girls"  in  Soho  Square,  London,  founded  in 
1880  by  the  Hon.  Maude  Stanley.  It  is  open  from  seven 
in  the  morning  to  ten  at  night  and  also  on  Sunday. 
Tea  can  be  obtained  for  2}/^  pence  (5  cents),  and  dinner 
for  6}/2  pence  (13  cents).  The  admission  fee  is  i  shilling, 
the  annual  dues  are  8  shillings.  The  members  have 
a  library  at  their  disposal,  and  they  publish  a  club 
magazine.  The  London  Girls'  Club  Union  Magazine. 
Members  of  such  clubs  (including  those  outside  Lon- 
don) have  formed  themselves  into  a  union.  The 
members  of  the  committee  —  composed  of  wealthy 
and  influential  women  —  concern  themselves  person- 
ally with  the  affairs  of  the  clubs,  giving  not  only  their 
money,  but  their  time  and  influence.  The  "College 
for  Working  Women"  has  existed  in  Fitzroy  Square 
for  more  than  25  years.  Here  are  taught  English, 
French,  history,  geography,  drawing,  arithmetic,  read- 
ing, writing,  singing,  cooking,  sewing,  wood  turning,  and 
other  subjects.  The  quarterly  fee  is  i  shilling  (for  use 
of  the  library,  attending  lectures,  etc.),  the  fees  for  the 
courses  range  from  i  shilling  and  3  pence  to  2  shillings 
and  6  pence  (31  to  62  cents)  quarterly.  A  commission 
gives  examinations.  The  institution  grants  scholar- 
ships and  gives  prizes.  The  number  of  such  clubs  in  the 
whole  of  Great  Britain  is  estimated  at  800. 

The  English  woman  is  developing  a  considerable 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  9 1 

activity  in  the  sociological  field.  Florence  Nightingale, 
who  organized  a  regular  hospital  service  on  the  field 
of  battle  during  the  Crimean  War  (1854),  upon  her 
return  to  England  took  steps  to  secure  the  training  of 
educated  women  for  the  nursing  profession,  in  which 
the  English  nurse  has  been  the  model.  The  most  im- 
portant Training  College  for  nurses  not  connected  with 
religious  orders  is  in  Henrietta  Street,  in  London.  Still 
this  distinguished  profession,  which  is  represented  in  the 
International  Red  Cross  Society,  has  not  yet  attained 
state  registration  of  nurses,  —  i.e.  an  ofl5cially  pre- 
scribed course  of  study  concluding  with  a  state  exami- 
nation. 

The  English  midwives  are  vehemently  complaining 
because  the  new  Midwives  Act  will  be  deliberated  on 
by  a  commission  having  no  midwife  as  a  member.  The 
superintendent  of  the  London  Institute  for  Midwives 
has  protested  against  this  on  behalf  of  26,000  midwives. 

Another  woman,  Octavia  Hill,  participated  in  the 
official  inquiry  of  the  living  conditions  of  the  London 
East  End,  which  led  to  a  systematic  campaign  against 
the  slums.  This  work  is  at  present  continued  in  Lon- 
don by  31  or  more  women  sanitary  officers.  They 
supplement  the  work  of  the  factory  inspectors,  since 
they  inspect  the  conditions  under  which  women  home- 
workers  live.  In  the  whole  country  there  are  more 
than  80  such  women  sanitary  ofiicers. 


92      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  home-workers  are  mostly  women.  Half  of  the 
900,000  or  more  English  women  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  ready-made  clothing  are  permitted  to  work 
at  home.  Their  wages  are  wretchedly  low.  The  gov- 
ernment, which  pays  the  men  of  the  Woolwich  Arsenal 
trade-union  wages,  is  one  of  the  worst  exploiters  of 
women  (who  do  not  have  the  right  to  vote) ;  in  the 
Army  Clothing  Works  the  government  employs  women 
either  directly  or  indirectly  (as  home-workers  through 
sweaters).^ 

The  urgent  need  of  widening  woman's  field  of  labor 
and  improving  her  conditions  of  labor  is  clearly  stated 
in  a  lecture  which  Miss  B.  L.  Hutchins  delivered  before 
the  Royal  Statistical  Society.  According  to  the  census 
of  1901  there  were  1,070,000  more  women  than  men  in 
Great  Britain.  In  1901,  of  every  1000  persons  516  were 
women  (in  1841,  only  511  were  women).  The  longevity 
of  women  is  higher  than  that  of  men  (47.77  to  44.13). 
When  the  old  age  pensions  were  introduced,  135  women 
to  every  100  men  applied  for  aid.  Only  half  of  the 
adult  women  (5,700,000)  are  provided  for  through 
marriage,  and  then  only  for  20  to  30  years  of  their  lives. 
Previous  to  marriage,  and  afterward,  most  of  the  women 
are  dependent  on  their  own  work  for  a  living.  Because 
English  women  know  from  experience  that  their  condi- 

1  See  Mrs.  Pethick  Lawrence,  "Women  and  Administration,"  Votes 
for  Women,  March  12,  1909. 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  93 

tions  of  labor  can  be  improved  only  through  the  exercise 
of  the  suffrage,  they  have  adopted  their  "militant 
tactics." 

In  the  field  of  poor-relief  England  again  has  taken 
the  lead,  inasmuch  as  she  has  permitted  women  to  fill 
honorary  posts  in  the  municipal  administration  of  the 
poor-law.  At  the  present  time  1162  women  are  engaged 
in  this  work,  147  of  whom  are  rural  district  councillors. 

The  chief  reform  efforts  of  the  women  were  directed 
to  the  care  of  children  and  to  the  workhouses,  through 
which  channels  private  aid  reaches  the  recipient.  Still, 
among  22,000  guardians  of  the  poor  the  number  of 
women  hardly  reaches  1000.  The  old  prejudice  against 
women  asserted  itself  even  in  this  field.  A  "Society 
for  Promoting  the  Return  of  Women  as  Poor-law 
Guardians"  is  endeavoring  to  hasten  reform.^ 

The  Enghshman  has  the  valuable  characteristic  of 
forming  organizations  that  strive  to  achieve  very  defi- 
nite, though  often  temporary,  ends,  thus  giving  private 
initiative  great  flexibility.  Such  an  organization,  with  a 
limited  purpose,  is  the  "Woman's  Cooperative  Gild," 
founded  in  1883.  Its  purpose  is  to  promote  the  co- 
operative movement  (as  far  as  consumption  is  concerned) 
among  women,  and  to  show  them  their  enormous  social 
and  economic  power  as  consumers.  Women  are  the 
chief  purchasers,  as  they  purchase  the  housekeeping 
'  See  the  article  of  Alice  Salmon,  ZentrdblaU. 


94      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

supplies.  It  is  to  their  interest  to  purchase  through  the 
cooperative  associations  that  exclude  the  middlemen, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  pay  a  dividend  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  associations.  These  associations  can  exer- 
cise an  important  social  influence  inasmuch  as  they 
create  model  conditions  of  labor  for  their  employees 
(short  working  day,  high  wages,  early  closing  of  the 
shops,  no  work  on  Sundays  or  holidays,  opportunity 
to  sit  down  during  working  hours,  insurance  against 
sickness,  old  age  insurance,  sanitary  conditions  of 
labor,  etc.).  The  Gild  organizes  women  into  coopera- 
tive societies,  and  by  theoretical  as  well  as  practical 
studies  informs  the  women  of  the  advantages  of  the 
cooperative  system.  The  movement  to-day  numbers 
26,000  members. 

In  England  a  marked  increase  in  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  among  women  was  noticed ;  whereupon  legal 
and  medical  measures  were  taken  to  curb  the  evil. 
The  most  effective  measure  would  be  an  attack  on  the 
drunkenness  of  the  husband,  which  destroys  the  home. 

The  oflScial  report  of  the  first  English  school  for 
mothers,  located  in  St.  Pancras,  London,  has  just 
appeared.  This  report  shows  that  the  experiment  has 
been  entirely  successful.  Of  all  measures  to  decrease 
the  death  rate  among  children,  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  mothers  is  the  best.  During  the  course  of 
instruction   the   young  married  women  were  recom- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  95 

mended  to  organize  mothers'  clubs  in  order  to  secure 
the  necessaries  of  Hfe  more  cheaply.  The  school  for 
mothers  also  attempts  to  give  the  young  mothers 
nourishing  meals,  which  can  be  furnished  for  the  low 
sum  of  2^  pence  (about  6  cents). 

In  the  field  of  morals  English  women  have  achieved 
a  success  which  might  well  excite  the  envy  of  other 
countries ;  viz.  the  repeal  of  the  law  of  1869  concerning 
the  state  regulation  of  prostitution.  The  law  had  hardly 
been  accepted  by  an  accidental  majority  when  public 
opinion,  under  the  leadership  of  members  of  Parlia- 
ment, doctors,  and  preachers,  protested  against  the 
measure.  Nothing  made  such  an  impression  as  the 
public  appearance  of  a  woman  on  behalf  of  the  repeal  of 
this  measure  concerning  women.  In  spite  of  all  scorn, 
all  feigned  and  frequently  malicious  pretensions  not  to 
comprehend  her,  in  spite  of  all  attempts,  frequently 
brutal,  to  browbeat  her,  —  Josephine  Butler  from  1870 
to  1886  unswervingly  supported  the  view  that  the  regu- 
lation was  to  be  condemned  from  the  legal,  sanitary, 
and  moral  viewpoint.  Through  the  tireless  work  of 
Mrs.  Butler  and  her  faithful  associates,  Parliament  in 
1886  repealed  the  act  providing  for  the  regulation  of 
prostitution.  Since  1875,  Mrs.  Butler  has  organized 
internationally  the  struggle  against  the  official  regula- 
tion of  prostitution.  On  December  30, 1906,  death  came 
to  the  noble  woman. 


96      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Conditions  in  England  are  an  evidence  of  how  much 
more  difficult  it  is  for  the  woman's  rights  movement  to 
make  progress  in  old  countries  than  in  new.  Traditions 
are  deeply  rooted,  customs  are  firmly  established,  the 
whole  weight  of  the  past  is  blocking  the  wheels  of  prog- 
ress. In  countries  with  older  civilization  the  woman's 
question  is  entirely  a  question  of  f  orce.^ 

CANADA 

Total  population :  5,372,600. 
Women :  2,619,578. 

Men:  2,751,473. 

Canadian  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs. 
Canadian  Woman's  Suffrage  Association. 

Politically  Canada  belongs  to  England,  geographically 
it  is  a  part  of  North  America.  The  Canadian  women 
take  a  keen  interest  in  the  woman's  rights  movement  of 
the  United  States,  which  is  setting  them  an  excellent 
example.  The  last  congress  of  the  "International 
Council  of  Women"  met  in  Toronto,  Canada,  under 
the  presidency  of  Lady  Aberdeen,  the  present  president 
and  the  wife  of  the  former  governor-general  of  Canada. 
Canada  is  a  large,  young,  agricultural  country  with 
large   families   and   primitive   needs.    Therefore   the 

1  For  a  survey  of  English  conditions  aSecting  women  we  recommend 
The  Women's  Charter  oj  Rights  and  Liberties,  by  Lady  McLaren,  1909, 
London. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  97 

progress  of  the  woman's  rights  movement  is  less  marked 
in  Canada  than  in  the  United  States  and  England. 
Throughout  Canada  the  workingwoman  is  paid  less 
than  the  workingman,  partly  because  she  is  more 
poorly  trained,  partly  because  she  is  kept  in  subordinate 
positions,  partly  because,  in  order  to  find  work  at  all, 
she  must  offer  her  services  for  less  money.  Even  when 
teaching,  or  doing  piecework,  woman  is  paid  less  than 
man.  In  Canada  there  is  as  yet  no  political  woman's 
rights  movement  strong  enough  to  rectify  this  injustice 
by  means  of  organizations  and  laws  as  has  been  done 
in  AustraHa.  As  yet  there  are  no  women  preachers  in 
Canada.  Women  lawyers  are  confronted  both  with 
popular  prejudice  and  legal  obstacles.  The  study  and 
practice  of  medicine  is  made  very  difficult  for  women, 
especially  in  Quebec  and  Montreal.  In  New  Brunswick 
and  Ontario  as  well  as  in  the  northwest  provinces  there 
is  a  more  liberal  attitude  toward  women's  pursuit  of 
higher  education.  No  Canadian  university  excludes 
women  entirely,  but  not  a  few  of  the  higher  institutions 
of  learning  refuse  women  admission  to  certain  courses 
and  refuse  to  grant  certain  degrees.  The  prevailing 
property  laws  in  the  eastern  part  of  Canada  legalize 
joint  property  holding  (and  we  know  what  that  means 
for  woman) ;  in  the  western  part  there  is  separation  of 
property  rights  or  at  least  separate  control  over  earnings, 
the  wife  having  full  control  of  her  wages.    The  male 

H 


98      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Canadian,  when  twenty-one  years  old,  becomes  a  voter 
and  has  full  political  rights.^  But  the  Canadian  woman 
has  only  restricted  suffrage  rights.  Unmarried  women 
that  are  taxpayers  exercise  only  active  suffrage  in 
municipal  and  school  elections.  Each  province  has  its 
own  laws  regulating  these  conditions  of  suffrage. 

The  Copenhagen  Congress  (1906)  of  the  International 
Woman's  Suffrage  Alhance  promoted  the  cause  of 
woman's  suffrage  in  Canada  very  considerably.  At  a 
public  meeting  in  which  the  Canadian  delegate,  Mrs. 
MacDonald  Denison,  gave  a  report  of  the  work  of  the 
International  Congress,  a  resolution  favoring  woman's 
suffrage  was  adopted,  and  this  was  used  very  effectively 
in  propaganda.  This  propaganda  was  carried  on 
among  women's  clubs,  students'  clubs,  debating  clubs, 
etc.  The  intellectual  elite  is  to-day  in  favor  of  woman's 
suffrage.  In  1907  the  Canadian  Woman's  Suffrage 
Association,  supported  by  the  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union,  the  Women  Teachers,  the  Medical 
Alumnae,  the  Progressive  Thought  Association,  the 
Toronto  Local  Council  of  Women,  and  the  Progressive 
Club,  sent  a  delegation  to  the  Mayor  and  Council  of 
the  city  of  Toronto  to  express  their  support  of  a  resolu- 
tion which  the  Council  had  drawn  up  favoring  the  right 
of   married   women    to   vote   in   municipal   elections. 

1  In  Canada  there  are  municipal  elections,  provincial  parliamentary 
elections,  and  elections  for  the  Dominion  Parliament. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  99 

Thus  supported,  the  resolution  was  presented  to  the 
authorized  commission,  but  here  it  was  weakened  by 
an  amendment  (granting  the  suffrage  only  to  married 
women  owtiing  property).  The  author  of  this  amend- 
ment, a  member  of  the  Toronto  City  Council,  received 
his  reward  for  this  kindness  to  the  women  in  the  form 
of  a  defeat  at  the  next  election. 

Organizations  favoring  woman's  suffrage  have  been 
founded  throughout  the  country  (HaUfax,  Nova  Scotia ; 
St.  John,  New  Brunswick).  Woman's  suffrage  advo- 
cates speak  in  mass  meetings  and  in  men's  clubs,  etc.^ 

A  demand  for  woman's  suffrage,  made  by  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  was  answered  evasively 
by  the  Prime  Minister,  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier,  —  the 
provincial  parliaments  must  take  the  matter  up  first, 
then  the  Dominion  Parliament  can  consider  it.  In  the 
spring  of  1909  the  City  Council  of  Toronto  sent  a 
petition  favoring  woman's  suffrage  to  the  Canadian 
Parliament,  and  at  the  same  time  1000  woman's 
suffrage  advocates  called  on  the  Prime  Minister.  The 
1909  Congress  of  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance  will  undoubtedly  help  the  Canadian  woman's 
suffrage  movement. 

*  See  the  Report  of  the  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance  Congress,  Amster- 
dam, 1908. 


100      THE   MODERN   WOM.A.N  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 
SOUTH  AFRICA 

Natal  and  Cape  Colony  * 

Total  population :  1,830,063. 
Transvaal 

Total  population :  1,354,200. 
Woman's  Suffrage  Association  for  all  three  countries. 

In  South  Africa,  Natal  was  the  leader  in  the  woman's 
rights  movement.  In  1902,  through  the  work  of  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Ancketill,  the  Woman's  Equal  Suffrage  League 
was  organized,  which  endeavored  primarily  to  interest 
and  educate  its  members.  Later,  in  1904,  pubHc 
propaganda  was  begun.  In  June  a  petition  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Lower  House  by  Mr.  Ancketill.  When 
he  presented  the  matter  in  the  form  of  a  motion,  it  was 
not  put  to  a  vote,  owing  to  the  newness  of  the  subject. 
The  agricultural  population  opposes  woman's  suffrage; 
the  urban  population  favors  it.  The  woman's  rights 
movement  is  made  difficult  in  South  Africa  by  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances:  An  enervating  climate  "that 
makes  people  languidly  content  with  things  as  they  are." 
The  lack  of  educated  and  independent  women  (women 
teachers  are  state  employees) ;  the  lack  of  a  numerous 
class  of  workingwomen ;  difficult  housekeeping,  owing 
to  the  imtrustworthiness  of  the  natives  as  domestic 

1  See  the  Report  of  the  International  Women's  Sufirage  Alliance, 
Amsterdam,  1908. 


THE   GERMANIC  COUNTRIES  lOI 

servants;  the  peculiar  position  of  men  as  taxpayers 
(men  only  pay  a  poll  tax)  and  as  arms  bearers  (all 
men  must  serve  in  the  army).^ 

In  Cape  Colony  similar  conditions  prevail.  The 
Women's  Enfranchisement  League  was  formed  in  1907 ; 
and  in  July,  1907,  there  took  place  the  first  woman's 
suffrage  debate  in  Parliament.  The  woman's  suffrage 
societies  of  Natal,  Cape  Colony,  and  the  Transvaal 
have  formed  an  association  and  have  joined  the  Inter- 
national Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance.  In  Natal  and 
Cape  Colony  women  taxpayers  exercise  the  right  to 
vote  in  municipal  affairs.  The  regulation  of  the  suffrage 
qualifications  for  the  Federal  Parliament  is  being  con- 
sidered. The  South  African  delegates  in  London  (1909) 
expressed  the  fear  that  women  would  not  be  given  the 
federal  suffrage. 

THE  SCANDINAVIAN  COUNTRIES 

Sweden 

Total  population :  S>377>7i3« 

Women:  2,751,257. 

Men :  2,626,456. 
Finland 

Total  population :  2,71 2,562. 

Women :  1,370,480. 

Men:  1,342,082. 

» The  last  two  arguments  are  easily  refuted. 


I02      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 


Norway 

Total  population : 

2,240,860. 

Women : 

i,i55,i69. 

Men: 

/}/>47 -Wt /T  *•  » 

1,085,691. 

JL/CflTnUTK 

Total  population : 

2,588,919. 

Women : 

1,331,154. 

Men: 

1,257,765, 

Sweden,  Finland,  Norway,  and  Denmark  will  be 
grouped  together  since  they  are  so  closely  connected 
by  race  and  culture ;  repetition  will  thereby  be  avoided, 
and  clearness  promoted. 

All  four  countries  have  the  advantage  of  having  a 
population  largely  agricultural,  —  a  population  scattered 
in  small  groups.  Clearly,  the  problem  of  dealing  with 
congested  masses  of  people  is  here  absent.  Everywhere 
there  is  an  eagerness  for  education.  The  educational 
average  is  high.  The  position  of  woman  is  one  of 
freedom,  for  here  have  been  kept  alive  the  old  Ger- 
manic traditions  which  we  [the  Germans]  know  only 
from  reading  Csesar  or  Tacitus.  An  external  factor  in 
hastening  the  solution  of  the  question  of  woman's 
rights  was  the  very  unusual  numerical  superiority  of 
women.  The  foreign  wars,  which  took  the  majority  of 
the  men  away  from  home  for  long  periods  of  time,  — 
first  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  then  again  in  the  seven- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  103 

teenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  —  and  the  fact  that 
the  Scandinavian  countries  themselves  were  afflicted 
with  wars  only  to  a  small  extent,  explain  the  freedom 
of  the  Scandinavian  women.  Like  the  English  women, 
they  had  for  centuries  not  known  the  significance  of 
war  for  woman.  In  the  absence  of  the  men,  women 
continued  the  transaction  of  business  and  industrial 
enterprises.  In  the  name  of  the  feudal  law  and  as 
heads  of  famiUes  they  administered  affairs,  exercising 
rights  that  were  elsewhere  denied  to  women. 

SWEDEN 

Total  population :  5,377,213. 
Women:  2,751,257. 

Men :  2,626,456. 

Swedish  Association  of  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  Society. 

In  Sweden  the  woman's  rights  movement  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  the  United  States.  The  founder 
of  the  Swedish  woman's  rights  movement  was  Frederika 
Bremer,  who  in  1845  visited  the  United  States,  study- 
ing the  conditions  of  the  women  there.  Upon  her 
return  she  encouraged  the  Swedish  women  through 
her  novel  Ilerlha  to  emancipate  themselves.  This 
took  place  in  1856.  The  government,  being  unable  to 
disregard  the  free  traditions  of  the  past,  was  thoroughly 


I04      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

in  favor  of  the  demands  of  the  woman's  rights  move- 
ment. As  early  as  1700,  women  owning  property 
exercised  the  right  of  voting  in  the  election  of  ministers. 
In  1843  this  right  had  been  extended  to  all  women 
taxpayers.  In  1845  the  daughter's  right  of  inheritance 
had  been  made  equal  to  that  of  the  son's.  In  1853  was 
begun  the  custom  of  appointing  women  teachers  in  the 
small  rural  schools;  in  1859  women  were  admitted  as 
teachers  in  all  public  institutions  of  learning.     Since 

1 86 1  women  have  been  eligible  as  dentists,  regimental 
surgeons,  and  organists  (but  not  as  preachers).    In 

1862  every  unmarried  woman  or  widow  over  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  paying  a  tax  of  500  crowns  (about 
$135),  was  granted  active  suffrage  in  municipal  affairs. 
The  municipal  electors,  inasmuch  as  they  elect  the 
members  of  the  Landsthing  (county  council)  and  the 
members  of  the  town  councils,  exercise  a  poHtical  influ- 
ence, for  the  members  of  the  Landsthing  and  the  town 
councils  elect  the  members  of  the  two  Chambers  of  the 
Riksdag,  the  national  legislative  body.  On  February 
10,  1909,  all  taxpaying  women  (unmarried,  widowed, 
and  married)  were  granted  the  passive  suffrage  (except 
for  the  ofl&ce  of  county  councillor).  Here  is  a  curious 
fact,  —  married  women  that  do  not  possess  the  right 
to  vote  in  municipal  affairs  can  still  hold  oflBce  ! 

In  1866  the  art  academies  were  opened  to  women,  in 
1870,  the  universities;  later  women  were  permitted  to 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  I05 

enter  the  postal  and  telegraph  service.  In  peculiar 
contrast  to  these  reforms  are  the  old  regulations  con- 
cerning the  guardianship  of  women/  which  has  been 
especially  supported  by  the  nobility  and  conservatives, 
and  has  been  used  chiefly  to  maintain  the  subordina- 
tion of  married  women. 

Against  this  condition  the  "Association  to  Advocate 
the  Right  of  Married  Women  to  Possess  Property"  has 
struggled  since  1873.  It  secured,  in  1,874,  the  right  of 
women  to  make  a  marriage  contract  providing  for 
the  separation  of  property.^  This  association  now 
undertook  the  political  education  of  the  women  voters 
in  mimicipal  elections;  hitherto  they  had  made  Uttle 
use  of  their  right  to  vote  (in  1887,  of  62,362  women 
having  the  right  to  vote  only  4844  voted).  Thanks  to 
the  propaganda  of  this  association,  participation  in 
elections  is  to-day  quite  general.  The  introduction  of 
coeducation  in  the  secondary  schools  is  also  due  to  the 
activity  of  this  association,  supported  by  Professor 
Wallis,  who  had  investigated  coeducation  in  the  United 
States.  But  in  the  field  of  secondary  education  there 
is  still  much  to  be  done  for  Swedish  women,  —  their 
salaries  as  teachers  are  lower  than  those  of  men;   in 

*  Woman  never  reaches  her  majority ;  she  must  always  have  a  male 
representative. 

'  The  husband  still  remains  the  guardian  of  the  wife.  To-day  the 
wife  controls  her  personal  earnings,  but  merely  as  long  as  they  are  in 
cash ;  whatever  she  buys  with  them  falls  into  the  control  of  the  husband. 


lo6     THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

matters  of  advancement  and  pensions  women  are  dis- 
criminated against,  though  they  are  expected  to  possess 
professional  training  and  ability  equal  to  that  of  the 
men. 

In  1889  the  Baroness  of  Adlersparre  succeeded, 
through  untiring  propaganda,  in  securing  for  women 
admission  to  school  and  poor-law  administration.  To 
the  baroness  is  due  also  the  revival  of  needlework  as 
an  appUed  art,  as  well  as  the  revival  of  agricultural  in- 
struction for  women.  All  of  these  ideas  she  had  ex- 
pressed since  1859  in  her  magazine  For  the  Home  (Furs 
Heim). 

Since  1884  the  center  of  the  Swedish  woman's  rights 
movement  has  been  the  "Frederika  Bremer  League," 
founded  by  the  Baroness  of  Adlersparre.  This  is  a 
sort  of  "Woman's  Institute,"  and  undertakes  inquiries, 
collects  data,  secures  employment,  organizes  members 
of  trades  and  professions,  fixes  minimum  wages,  organ- 
izes petitions,  gives  advice,  offers  leadership,  gives 
stipends;  in  short,  in  various  ways  it  centralizes  the 
Swedish  women's  rights  movement.  In  1896  the 
"Association  to  Advocate  the  Right  of  Married  Women 
to  Possess  Property"  aifihated  with  the  "Frederika 
Bremer  League." 

The  following  are  the  facts  concerning  the  work  of 
educated  women  in  Sweden:  The  number  of  elementary 
school  teachers  is  about  double  that  of  the  men  (in 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  107 

1899  there  were  9950  women  as  compared  with  5322 
men).  The  salaries  of  the  women  are  everywhere 
lower  than  those  of  the  men.  In  1908  there  were 
12,000  women  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools,  their 
annual  salary  being  1400  crowns  ($375)  or  more. 

There  are  35  women  doctors  in  Sweden,  most  of  whom 
practice  in  Stockholm.  The  Swedish  midwives  are 
well  trained.  Nursing  is  a  respected  calling  for  edu- 
cated women ;  also  kinesiatrics  (hygienic  gjonnastics), 
the  latter  being  lucrative  as  well. 

The  first  woman  Doctor  of  Philosophy  was  Ellen 
Fries,  who  received  the  degree  in  1883.  Sonja  Kowa- 
lewska  was  a  professor  in  mathematics  in  the  free  Uni- 
versity of  Stockholm.  Ellen  Key  is  also  a  teacher, 
her  field  being  sociology. 

In  Sweden  there  are  two  women  university  lecturers ; 
one  in  law,  the  other  in  physics.  As  yet  there  are  no 
women  lawyers  and  preachers.  The  legislative  act  of 
February,  1909,  which  secures  for  women  their  appoint- 
ment in  all  state  institutions  (educational,  scientific, 
artistic,  and  industrial),  will  greatly  improve  woman's 
professional  prospects. 

Sweden  is  not  a  land  of  large  manufactories;  hence 
there  is  no  problem  arising  from  the  presence  of  large 
masses  of  industrial  laborers.  Since  1865  the  wages  of 
the  agricultural  laborers  have  risen  85  per  cent  for 
women  and  65  per  cent  for  men.     There  are  242,914 


I08    THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

women  engaged  in  agriculture,  57,053  in  industry,  — 
3400  of  the  latter  being  organized.  There  are  15,376 
women  employed  in  commerce;  they  are  throughout 
paid  lower  wages  than  the  men  (400  to  1200  crowns, 
i.e.  $107  to  $321). 

The  organization  of  the  workingwomen  is  not  con- 
nected with  the  woman's  rights  movement ;  it  is  afl&l- 
iated  with  the  workingmen's  movement.  In  this  field 
Ellen  Key  has  been  quite  active  as  a  national  educator. 
She  is  a  supporter  of  the  laws  for  the  protection  of 
women  laborers,  and  on  this  point  she  has  frequently 
met  opposition  among  the  woman's  rights  advocates 
of  Sweden  (an  opposition  similar  to  that  offered  by  the 
English  Federation  for  Freedom  of  Labor  Defense). 
In  1907  an  exposition  of  home-work  was  held  in  Stock- 
holm, similar  to  the  German  expositions. 

The  right  to  vote  in  national  elections  ^  in  Sweden  is 
exercised  by  landowners  and  taxpayers;  however, 
only  by  men.  Therefore  there  is  a  Swedish  National 
Woman's  Suffrage  Society,  which  in  recent  years  has 
grown  very  considerably,  having  over  10,000  members. 
In  the  autumn  of  1906  a  delegation  from  the  society 
was  received  by  the  Prime  Minister  and  the  King,  who, 
however,  could  hold  out  no  promise  of  a  government 
measure  favoring  woman's  suffrage.     The  society  then 

1  See  the  Report  of  the  Iiitemational»Woman's  SuSrage  Alliance  Con- 
gress, Amsterdam,  igo8. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  IO9 

tried  to  influence  the  Pariiament  with  an  enormous 
petition  ha\ing  142,188  signatures.  This  petition  was 
presented  February  6,  1907. 

In  1906  and  1907  the  Labor  party  and  the  Liberal 
party  inserted  woman's  suffrage  into  their  platforms 
and  presented  bills  favoring  the  measure.  Twice  (in 
1907  and  1908)  Parliament  rejected  the  clause  providing 
for  woman's  suffrage.  On  February  13, 1909,  the  Swed- 
ish males  were  granted  universal  suffrage  (active  and 
passive)  in  national  elections ;  at  the  same  time  ParHa- 
ment  tried  to  appease  the  women  by  granting  them  the 
passive  suffrage  in  mimicipal  elections.  In  the  spring 
of  1909  the  bill  concerning  woman's  right  to  vote  in  na- 
tional elections  (Staaf  Bill)  was  accepted  by  the  Con- 
stitutional Commission  by  a  vote  of  1 1  to  9 ;  the  Lower 
House  also  accepted  it,  but  it  was  rejected  by  the  Upper 
House. 

The  political  successes  of  the  Norwegian  women  have 
a  stimulating  effect  on  Sweden. 

Prohibition  has  influential  advocates  in  Sweden,  and 
supporters  in  ParUament.  At  the  request  of  the  Swed- 
ish women's  clubs,  police  matrons  were  appointed  to 
cooperate  with  the  police  regulating  prostitution  in 
Stockholm,  Helsingborg,  Trelleborg,  and  Malmo.  At 
the  present  time  a  commission  is  considering  future 
plans  for  police  regulation  of  prostitution  in  Sweden. 

In  Sweden,  where  there  are  about  half  a  million  organ- 


110       THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

ized  adherents  to  the  cause  of  temperance,  there  are 
77  daily  papers  that  consistently  print  matter  pertain- 
ing to  temperance.  Not  only  these  77  papers,  most 
of  whose  editors  are  Good  Templars,  but  at  least  13 
other  dailies  refuse  all  advertisements  of  alcoholic 
liquors.^  In  Norway,  where  similar  conditions  pre- 
vail, there  are  a  quarter  of  a  million  temperance  advo- 
cates, and  about  40  daily  papers  that  favor  the  cause. 

FINLAND 

Total  population :    2,712,562. 
Women:  1,370,480. 

Men:  1,342,082. 

No  league  of  Finnish  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  discussion  of  the  Finnish  woman's  rights  move- 
ment will  follow  that  of  Sweden,  for  Finland  was  till 
1809  politically  a  part  of  Sweden ;  the  cultural  tie  still 
exists. 

In  Finland  also,  the  woman's  rights  movement  is  of 
literary  origin,  —  Adelaide  Enrooth  and  Frederika 
Runeburg  preached  the  gospel  of  woman's  emancipa- 
tion to  an  intellectual  elite.  Through  the  influence  of 
Bjornson,  Ibsen,  and  Strindberg  the  discussion  of  the 
"social   lie"     (Gesellschaftsluge)    became    general.     In 

1  See  the  supplement,  "Opposed  to  Alcoholism,"  in  Otie  People,  One 
School,  for  April,  igog. 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  III 

the  eighties  of  the  last  century,  the  ideas  and  criticisms 
were  turned  into  deeds  and  reforms.  Above  all  a 
thorough  education  for  woman  was  demanded.  Since 
1883,  coeducational  schools  have  been  established 
through  private  funds  in  all  cities  of  the  country. 
These  institutions  have  received  state  aid  since  1891. 
They  are  secondary  schools,  having  the  curriculums  of 
German  Realschulen  and  Gymnasiums.^  Not  only  is 
the  student  body  composed  of  boys  and  girls,  but  the 
direction  and  instruction  in  these  schools  are  divided 
equally  between  women  and  men;  thereby  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  men  is  counteracted.  Even  before 
the  establishment  of  these  schools  women  had  privately 
prepared  themselves  for  the  Abiturientenexamen  (ex- 
aminations taken  when  leaving  the  secondary  schools), 
and  had  entered  the  University  of  Helsingfors.  In 
1870  the  first  woman  entered  the  University ;  in  1873 
the  second;  in  1885  two  more  followed.  To-day,  478 
women  are  registered  in  Helsingfors.  Most  of  these 
women  are  devoting  themselves  to  the  teaching  pro- 
fession, which  is  more  favorable  to  women  in  Finland 
than  in  Sweden.  The  first  woman  doctor,  Rosina 
Hickel,  has  been  practicing  in  Helsingfors  since  1879- 
The  number  of  women  doctors  has  since  risen  to  20. 

*  ARealschule  teaches  no  classics,  but  is  a  scientific  school  emphasizing 
manual  training.  A  Gymnasium  prepares  for  the  university,  making  the 
classics  an  essential  part  of  the  curriculum.     [Tr.] 


112      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

In  Finland  any  reputable  person  can  plead  before 
the  court;  but  there  are  no  professional  women  law- 
yers and  no  women  preachers.  However,  there  are 
women  architects  and  women  factory  inspectors. 
Since  1864,  women  have  been  employed  in  the  postal 
service;  since  1869,  in  the  telegraph  service  and  in  the 
railway  offices.  Here  they  draw  the  same  salary  as  the 
men,  when  acting  in  the  same  capacity.  Commercial 
callings  have  been  opened  to  women,  and  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  women  as  office  clerks. 

The  statistical  yearbook  for  Finland  does  not  give 
separate  statistics  concerning  workingwomen.  The 
total  number  of  laborers  in  1906  was  113,578.  Per- 
haps one  tenth  of  these  were  women,  —  engaged  chiefly 
in  the  textile  and  paper  industries,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  provisions  and  ready-made  clothing.  There 
are  few  married  women  engaged  in  industrial  work. 
Women  are  admitted  to  membership  in  the  trade- 
unions. 

In  a  monograph  on  women  engaged  in  the  ready-made 
clothing  industry  ^  are  found  the  following  facts  (estab- 
lished by  official  investigation  of  621  establishments 
employing  3205  women  laborers) :  97.7  per  cent  of  the 
women  were  immarried,  and  2.3  per  cent  married; 
the  minimimi  wages  were  10  cents  a  day ;  the  maximum, 
$1.50 ;  the  women  laborers  living  with  their  parents  or 
1  By  Vera  Hillt,  Statistics  of  Labor,  VI,  Helsingfors,  1908. 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  II3 

relatives  numbered  1358;  the  sanitary  conditions  were 
bad. 

Home  industry  in  Finland  (as  well  as  in  Sweden  and 
Norway)  has  recently  shown  a  striking  growth.  It  was 
on  the  point  of  succumbing  to  the  cheap  factory  prod- 
ucts. In  order  to  perpetuate  the  industry,  schools 
for  housewives  were  established  in  connection  with  the 
public  high  schools  in  the  rural  districts.  In  these 
schools  were  taught,  in  addition  to  domestic  science  and 
agriculture,  various  domestic  handicrafts  that  oflfered 
the  women  a  pleasant  and  useful  activity  during  the 
long  winters.  Not  being  carried  on  intensively,  these 
handicrafts  could  never  lead  to  exploitation  and  over- 
work. 

In  1864  the  guardianship  of  men  over  unmarried 
women  was  abolished.  Married  women  are  still  under 
the  guardianship  of  their  husbands.  Since  1889,  the 
wife  has  been  able  to  secure  a  separation  of  property  by 
means  of  a  contract.  She  has  control  of  her  earnings 
when  joint  property  holding  prevails.  The  unmarried 
women  taxpayers  and  landowners  have  been  voters  in 
municipal  elections  since  1865.  In  the  rural  districts 
they  have  also  had  the  right  to  hold  local  administra- 
tive offices.  Just  as  in  Sweden,  they  have  the  right  to 
participate  in  the  election  of  ministers ;  and  since  1891 
and  1893  they  have  had  active  and  passive  suffrage  in 
regard  to  school  boards  and  poor-law  administration. 


114      THE   MODERN    WOMAN  S   EIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Taking  advantage  of  the  collapse  of  Russia  in  the 
Far  East,  Finland  —  in  May,  1906  —  established  uni- 
versal active  and  passive  suffrage  for  all  male  and  fe- 
male citizens  over  twenty-four  years  of  age.  She  was 
the  first  European  country  to  take  this  step.  On 
IVIarch  15,  1907,  the  Finnish  women  exercised  for  the 
first  time  the  right  of  suffrage  in  state  elections.  Nine- 
teen women  were  elected  to  the  Parliament  (comprising 
200  representatives).  The  women  belonged  to  all  par- 
ties, but  most  of  them  were  adherents  of  the  Old-Fin- 
nish party  (having  6  representatives)  and  of  the  So- 
cialist party  (having  9  representatives).  Ten  of  the 
women  representatives  were  either  married  or  were 
widows.  They  belonged  quite  as  much  to  the  cultured, 
property-owning  class  as  to  the  masses.  This  ParUa- 
ment  was  dissolved  in  April,  1908.  In  the  new  elec- 
tions of  July,  25  women  were  elected  as  representatives. 
Here  again  most  of  the  elected  women  belonged  to  the 
Old-Finnish  party  (with  6  representatives)  and  to  the 
Socialists  (with  13  representatives).  Nine  of  the  women 
representatives  are  married.  Of  the  husbands  of  these 
women  one  is  a  doctor,  one  a  clergyman,  one  a  working- 
man,  two  are  farmers,  etc.  Of  the  unmarried  women 
representatives  six  are  teachers,  two  are  tailors,  two 
are  editors  of  women's  newspapers,  four  are  traveling 
lecturers,  one  is  a  factory  inspector,  and  there  is  one 
Doctor  of  Philosophy. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES        I15 

In  both  parliaments  the  women  presented  numerous 
measures,  some  of  general  concern,  others  bearing  on 
woman's  rights.^  Some  of  the  measures  provided  for : 
the  improvement  of  the  legal  status  of  illicit  children, 
parental  authority,  the  protection  of  maternity,  the 
aboUtion  of  the  husband's  guardianship  over  the  wife, 
the  better  protection  of  children,  the  protection  of  the 
woman  on  the  street,  the  aboUtion  of  the  regulation  of 
prostitution,  and  the  raising  of  the  age  of  consent. 

This  list  of  measures  indicates  that  the  Finnish  laws 
regulating  marriage  are  still  antiquated,  and  that  the 
poHtical  emancipation  of  woman  did  not  immediately 
effect  her  release  from  legal  bondage.  One  of  the  Fin- 
nish woman's  advocates  said,  "Our  short  experience 
has  taught  us  that  we  may  still  have  a  hard  fight  for 
equal  rights." 

Not  only  the  antiquated  marriage  laws  are  incon- 
sistent with  the  national  political  rights  of  women ;  in 
the  municipal  election  laws,  too,  woman  is  treated  un- 
justly. Married  women  do  not  exercise  the  right  of 
suffrage,  and  widows  and  unmarried  women  possess 
the  passive  suffrage  only  in  the  election  of  poor-law 
administrators  and  school  boards.  Two  woman's 
suffrage  organizations  —  Unionen  and  Finsk  Kvinno- 

*  See  the  complete  list  of  measures  in  Jus  SuJJragi,  September  15, 
1908.  This  is  the  organ  of  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alli- 
ance. 


Il6      THE   MODERN   WOMAN* S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

forening  —  have  existed  since  1906 ;  they  have  no 
party  aMiations.  Two  new  woman's  suffrage  societies 
—  Swenska  Kinnoforbundet  and  Naillutto  (Young-Fin- 
nish) —  are  party  organizations. 

The  bill  concerning  the  abolition  of  the  official  regu- 
lation of  prostitution  has  meanwhile  become  law,  re- 
placing the  former  unsatisfactory,  and  for  Finland,  ex- 
ceptional law.  The  law  corresponding  to  the  English 
Vagrancy  Act  (supplement  to  paragraph  45  of  the  Fin- 
nish Civil  Code)  provides  that  "  whoever  accosts  a  wo- 
man in  public  places  for  immoral  purposes  shall  pay 
a  fine  of  $50." 

On  October  31,  1907,  the  manufacture,  importation, 
sale,  or  storing  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  any  form  what- 
ever was  prohibited  by  law.  In  recent  years  the 
Finnish  woman  temperance  lecturer,  Trigg  Helenius, 
has  carried  on  a  successful  international  propaganda. 

External  and  internal  difficulties  have  to  the  pres- 
ent made  impossible  the  formation  of  Finnish  women's 
clubs  and  a  federation  of  the  women  voters. 

NORWAY 

Total  population :  2,240,860. 
Women:  1,155,169. 

Men:  1,085,691. 

League  of  Norwegian  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  Association. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  II7 

In  recent  years  the  Norwegian  woman's  rights 
movement  has  made  marked  progress.  Just  as  in  the 
other  Scandinavian  countries,  women  were  freed  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  from  the 
most  burdensome  legal  restrictions  by  a  liberal  major- 
ity in  Parliament.  In  1854  the  daughters  were  given 
the  same  right  of  inheritance  as  the  sons,  and  male 
guardianship  for  unmarried  women  was  abolished. 
However,  the  real  woman's  rights  movement,  like  that 
of  Sweden  and  Finland,  began  in  the  eighties  of  the 
last  century.  Aasta  Hansteen,  Clara  Collett,  Bjornson, 
and  Ibsen  had  prepared  public  opinion  for  the  emanci- 
pation of  women.  Like  Frederika  Bremer,  Aasta 
Hansteen  had  emigrated  to  America  owing  to  the 
prejudices  of  her  countrymen;  and,  again  like  Fred- 
erika Bremer,  she  returned  to  her  native  land  and  could 
rejoice  over  the  progress  of  the  movement  which  she 
had  instigated.  In  1884  the  Norwegian  Woman's 
League  was  founded.  It  has  since  1886  published 
a  semimonthly  woman's  suffrage  magazine,  Nylaende. 
In  1887  the  Norwegian  woman's  rights  movement 
won  the  same  victory  that  Mrs.  Butler  had  won 
in  England  in  1886 :  the  official  regulation  of  pros- 
titution was  abolished  (neither  in  Sweden  nor  in  Den- 
mark has  a  similar  reform  been  secured  thus  far).  A? 
early  as  1882  several  university  faculties  had  admitted 
women,  and  in  1884  women  were  given  the  legal  right 


Il8      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

to  secure  an  academic  training,  and  they  were  declared 
eligible  to  receive  all  scholarships  and  all  academic 
degrees.  In  1904  a  law  was  enacted  admitting  women 
to  a  number  of  public  offices.  Paragraph  12  of  the 
Constitution  excludes  them  from  the  office  of  minister 
in  the  Cabinet;  they  are  excluded  from  consulships 
on  international  grounds,  from  miUtary  offices  by  the 
nature  of  the  offices,  and  from  the  theological  field 
through  the  backwardness  of  the  Norwegian  clergy. 
But  they  were  admitted  to  the  teaching  and  legal 
professions,  and  to  some  of  the  administrative  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  The  law  made  no  dis- 
crimination between  married  and  unmarried  women. 
It  is  believed  that  the  women  can  decide  best  for 
themselves  whether  or  not  they  can  combine  the 
work  of  an  administrative  office  with  their  domestic 
duties. 

Hitherto  the  teaching  profession  had  presented 
difficulties  for  women.  Fewer  women  than  men  were 
appointed;  the  women  were  given  the  subordinate 
positions  and  paid  lower  salaries.  The  women  had 
energetically  protested  against  these  conditions  since 
the  passing  of  the  law  of  1904;  in  1908  they  succeeded 
in  having  the  magistrate  of  Christiania  raise  the  ini- 
tial salary  of  women  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools 
from  900  crowns  ($241)  to  iioo  crowns  ($295),  and  the 
maximum  salary  from   1500  crowns   ($402)  to  1700 


THE   GERAIANIC   COUNTRIES  II9 

crowns  ($455).  In  Christiania  the  women  also  de- 
manded that  women  teachers  be  given  the  position  of 
head  master;  there  were  many  women  in  the  pro- 
fession, —  2900  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  736 
in  the  secondary  schools. 

The  women  shop  assistants'  trade-union  in  an  open 
meeting  in  Christiania  has  demanded  equal  pay  for 
equal  work. 

By  a  law  passed  in  May,  1908,  women  employees 
in  the  postal  service  were  given  the  same  pay  as  the 
men  employees.  As  a  result  of  this  the  women  tele- 
graph operators,  supported  by  the  Norwegian  Woman's 
Suffrage  Association,  drew  up  a  petition  requesting 
the  same  concession  as  was  made  the  women  postal 
employees,  and  presented  the  petition  to  the  govern- 
ment and  the  Storthing.  This  movement  favoring 
an  increase  of  wages  was  strongly  supported  by  the 
woman's  suffrage  movement. 

The  women  taxpayers  (including  married  women) 
have  possessed  active  and  passive  suffrage  in  munici- 
pal affairs  since  1901.  The  property  qualification  re- 
quires that  a  tax  of  300  crowns  ($80)  must  be  paid 
in  the  rural  districts,  and  400  crowns  ($107)  in  cities. 
In  1902  women  exercised  the  suffrage  in  municipal 
affairs  for  the  first  time ;  in  Christiania  6  women  were 
elected  to  municipal  offices. 

The  Norwegian  League  of  Women's  Clubs  and  the 


120      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

woman's  suffrage  associations  protested  to  the  govern- 
ment and  to  the  Parliament  because  suffrage  in  the 
national  elections  had  been  withheld  from  the  women. 
The  separation  of  Sweden  and  Norway  (1906),  which 
concerned  the  women  greatly,  but  in  which  they  could 
exercise  no  voice,  was  a  striking  proof  of  woman's 
powerlessness  in  civil  affairs.  Hence  the  Norwegian 
Woman's  Suffrage  League  instituted  a  woman's  ballot, 
in  which  19,000  votes  were  cast  in  favor  of  separation, 
none  being  cast  against  it. 

In  1907  six  election  bills  favorable  to  woman's  suf- 
frage were  presented  to  the  Storthing ;  and  June  10, 
1907,  women  taxpayers  were  granted  active  and  passive 
suffrage  in  municipal  elections  (affecting  about  300,000 
women;  200,000  are  still  not  enfranchised).  This 
right  of  suffrage  is  accorded  to  married  women.  The 
next  general  elections  will  take  place  in  1909. 

Since  the  Norwegian  men  have  active  and  passive 
suffrage  in  parliamentary  elections,  the  women  also 
made  their  demands  to  the  Storthing.  The  Ministry 
resolved,  in  pursuance  of  this  demand,  to  present  the 
Storthing  with  the  requisite  constitutional  amend- 
ment (Article  52).  The  Storthing  requested  that 
before  the  next  municipal  elections  (1910)  the  Min- 
istry present  a  satisfactory  bill  providing  for  woman's 
suffrage  in  municipal  elections.  At  the  present  time 
142  women  are  city  coimcilors   (122   in  the  cities). 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  121 

In  the  autumn  of  1909  women  will  for  the  first  time 
participate  in  the  parliamentary  elections. 

At  two  congresses  of  the  International  Woman's 
Suffrage  Alliance  (Amsterdam,  in  1908 ;  and  London, 
in  1909),  Norway  was  officially  represented  by  the 
wife  of  the  Minister  of  State,  Qvam. 

The  emancipation  of  women  legally  and  in  the  pro- 
fessions had  preceded  their  political  emancipation, 
Norwegian  women  first  practiced  as  dentists  in  1872 ; 
since  1884,  women  have  been  druggists  and  have  prac- 
ticed medicine.  They  practice  in  all  large  cities.  There 
are  38  women  engaged  as  physicians  for  the  courts,  as 
school  physicians,  as  university  assistants  in  museums 
and  laboratories,  and  as  sanitary  officers.  Since  1904 
there  have  been  two  women  lawyers.  Cand.  jur. 
EUsa  Sam  was  the  first  woman  to  profit  by  this 
reform.  The  first  woman  university  professor  was 
Mrs.  Matilda  Schjott  in  Christiania;  to-day  there 
are  three  such  professors.  There  are  37  women  ar- 
chitects. In  1888  married  women  were  given  the 
right  to  make  marriage  contracts  providing  for  separate 
property  holding.  Even  where  there  is  joint  property 
holding,  the  wife  controls  her  earnings. 

In  Norway  the  law  protects  the  illegitimate  mother 
and  her  child  better  than  elsewhere.  The  Norwegian 
law  regards  and  punishes  as  accomplices  in  infanticide 
all  those  that  drive  a  woman  to  such  a  step,  —  the 


122      THE   MODERN   WOMAN* S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

illicit  father,  the  parents,  the  guardians,  and  employers, 
who  desert  a  woman  in  such  circumstances  and  put  her 
out  into  the  street.  Since  1891,  women  have  been 
eligible  to  hold  office  as  poor-law  administrators; 
since  1899  they  can  be  members  of  school  boards.  The 
number  of  workingwomen  is  67,000.  Of  these  2000 
are  organized. 

DENMARK 

Total  population ;  2,588,919. 
Women:  1,331,154. 

Men:  1,257,765. 

Federation  of  Danish  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

The  origin  of  the  woman's  rights  movement  in  Den- 
mark is  also  literary,  —  to  Frederika  Bremer  in  Sweden, 
Aasta  Hansteen  and  Clara  CoUett  in  Norway,  must 
be  added  as  emancipators,  Mathilda  Fibiger  and 
Pauline  Worm  in  Denmark.  The  writings  of  both  of 
these  women  in  favor  of  emancipation,  —  "Clara 
Raphael's  Letters"  and  "Sensible  People,"  —  date 
back  as  far  as  1848 ;  they  were  inspired  by  the  liberal 
ideas  prevailing  in  Germany  previous  to  the  "March 
Revolution."  An  organized  woman's  rights  move- 
ment did  not  come  into  being  until  twenty-five  years 
later.  A  liberal  parliamentary  majority  in  Denmark 
abolished,  in  1857,  male  guardianship  over  unmarried 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES        1 23 

women;  and  in  1859  established  the  equal  inheritance 
rights  of  daughters,  thus  following  the  example  of 
Sweden  and  Norway.  It  was  necessary  first  to  secure 
the  support  of  public  opinion  through  a  literary  dis- 
cussion of  woman's  rights.  This  was  carried  on  be- 
tween 1868  and  1880  by  Georg  Brandes,  who  trans- 
lated John  Stuart  Mill's  The  Subjection  oj  Women, 
and  by  Bjornson  and  Ibsen.  In  187 1  Representative 
Bajer  and  his  wife  organized  the  first  woman's  rights 
society,  the  "Danish  Woman's  Club,"  which  rapidly 
spread  throughout  Denmark.  At  first  the  Club  en- 
deavored to  secure  a  more  thorough  education  for 
women,  and  therefore  labored  for  the  improvement 
of  the  girls'  high  schools,  and  for  the  institution  of  co- 
educational schools.  In  1876  it  secured  the  admission 
of  women  to  the  University  of  Copenhagen. 

In  the  teaching  profession  women  are  employed  in 
greater  numbers,  and  are  better  paid  than  in  Sweden 
at  the  present  time.  There  are  3003  women  elemen- 
tary school  teachers  and  2240  women  teachers  in  the 
high  schools.  As  yet  there  are  no  women  lecturers 
or  professors  in  the  university.^  Since  i860,  women 
have  filled  subordinate  positions  in  the  postal  and  tele- 
graph services,  and  since  1889  they  have  also  filled  the 
higher  positions ;  there  are  in  all  1500  women  employees. 

•  In  1904  women  were  declared  eligible  by  an  official  ordinance  to 
hold  university  ofEces. 


124      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  subordinate  positions  in  the  national  and  local 
administrations  are  to  a  certain  extent  open  to  them. 
The  number  of  women  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits 
is  47,617;  the  number  of  domestic  servants,  89,000. 
The  domestic  servants  are  organized  only  to  a  limited 
extent  (800  being  organized).  The  women  in  the  in- 
dustries are  better  organized,  —  chiefly  in  the  same 
trade-unions  as  the  men.  In  1899  the  women  com- 
prised one  fifth  of  the  total  number  of  organized  la- 
borers ;  since  then  this  proportion  has  increased  con- 
siderably. The  average  wages  of  the  women  domestic 
servants  are  20  crowns  ($5.36)  a  month ;  the  average 
wages  of  the  workingwomen  are  from  2  to  2.5  crowns 
(53  to  67  cents)  a  day. 

Since  1880  the  wife  can  secure  separate  property 
holding  rights  through  a  marriage  contract.  Where 
joint  property  holding  prevails,  the  wife  controls  her  own 
earnings  and  savings.  In  1888  municipal  suffrage  was 
demanded  by  the  ''Danish  Woman's  Club,"  but  the 
Rigsdag  rejected  the  measure.  Since  then  the  ques- 
tion has  occupied  much  attention.  In  1906  the  Con- 
gress of  the  Woman's  International  Suffrage  Alliance 
performed  excellent  propaganda  work.  New  woman's 
suffrage  societies  were  organized,  and  the  older  societies 
were  enlarged.^    In  the  meantime  the  bill  concerning 

'  It  might  be  well  to  mention  Dansk  Knndesamfund,  Politisk  Kvinde- 
forening,  Landsforhund,  V algrelsforeningen  af  iqo8  (a  Christian  associa- 
tion of  men  and  women). 


THE    GERMANIC    COUNTRIES  1 25 

municipal  suffrage  was  being  sent  from  one  House  to 
the  other.  Finally,  on  February  26,  1908,  it  was 
adopted  by  the  Upper  House,  on  April  14  by  the  Lower 
House,  and  on  April  20  signed  by  the  King.  All  tax- 
payers, twenty-five  years  of  age,  were  permitted  to 
vote.  All  classes  of  women  —  widows,  unmarried, 
and  married  women  —  were  enfranchised.  They  have 
active  and  passive  suffrage.  In  March,  1909,  they 
exercised  both  rights  for  the  first  time.  The  partici- 
pation in  the  election  was  general ;  six  women  were 
elected  in  Copenhagen.  The  women  are  now  demand- 
ing the  suffrage  in  national  affairs.  Immediately  after 
the  victory  of  1908  the  Woman's  Suffrage  League  or- 
ganized strong  demonstrations  in  forty  cities  in  favor 
of  this  demand. 

Here  it  must  be  mentioned  that  the  women  in  Ice- 
land were  granted,  in  the  autumn  of  1907,  active  and 
passive  suffrage  in  municipal  affairs.  In  January,  1908, 
they  participated  in  the  elections  for  the  first  time. 
In  Reikiavik,  the  capital,  2850  people  voted,  1220  of 
whom  were  women.  Four  women  were  elected  to  the 
city  council,  one  polling  the  highest  number  of  votes. 
In  1909,  the  Icelandic  Woman's  Suffrage  League  joined 
the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance.  A  num- 
ber of  Icelandic  woman's  suffrage  societies  in  Canada 
have  affiliated  with  the  Canadian  Woman's  Suffrage 
League. 


126      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

On  March  30, 1906,  official  regulation  of  prostitution 
was  abolished  in  Denmark ;  but  a  new  law  of  similar 
character  was  enacted  providing  for  stringent  measures. 

THE    NETHERLANDS 

Total  population :  5,673,237. 
Women:  2,583,535. 

Men:  2,520,602. 

Federation  of  the  Netherlands  Women's  Clubs.  ^ 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

Although  women  are  in  a  numerical  superiority 'in  the 
Netherlands,  it  is  much  less  difficult  for  them  to  find 
non-domestic  employment  than  it  is  for  the  German 
women,  for  instance.  The  Netherlands  has  large 
colonies  and  therefore  a  good  market  for  its  male 
workers.  The  educated  Dutchman  is  kindly  disposed 
toward  the  woman's  rights  movement,  and  in  the 
educated  circles  the  wife  really  enjoys  rights  equal  to 
those  of  the  husband,  which  is  less  frequently  the  case 
among  the  lower  classes.  The  marriage  laws  are  based 
on  the  Code  Napoleon,  which,  however,  was  consider- 
ably altered  in  1838.  The  guardianship  of  the  husband 
over  the  wife  still  prevails.  According  to  paragraph 
160  of  the  Civil  Code  the  husband  controls  the  personal 
property  that  the  wife  acquires;  but  he  administers 
her  real  estate  only  with  the  wife's  consent.    Accord- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 27 

ing  to  paragraph  163  of  the  Civil  Code  the  wife  cannot 
give  away,  sell,  mortgage,  or  acquire  anything  inde- 
pendently. She  can  do  those  things  only  with  her  hus- 
band's written  consent.  No  marriage  contract  can 
annul  this  requirement ;  but  the  wife  can  stipulate  the 
independent  control  of  her  income.  According  to 
paragraph  1637  of  the  Civil  Code  the  wife  is  permitted 
to  control  for  the  benefit  of  the  family  the  money  that  she 
earns  while  fulfilling  a  labor  contract.  AffiUation  cases, 
it  is  true,  are  recognized  by  law,  but  under  considerable 
restrictions. 

The  first  sign  of  the  woman's  rights  movement  mani- 
fested itself  in  the  Netherlands  in  1846.  At  that  time 
a  woman  appeared  in  public  for  the  first  time  as  a 
speaker.  She  was  the  Countess  Mahrenholtz-Biilow, 
who  introduced  kindergartens  (Frdbelsystem)  into  the 
Netherlands. 

In  1857  elementary  education  was  made  compul- 
sory in  the  Netherlands.  At  that  time  this  instruc- 
tion was  free,  undenominational,  and  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  state ;  but  in  1889  it  was  partly  given  over 
into  denominational  and  private  hands.  The  secondary 
s'-hools  for  girls  are  partly  municipal,  partly  private. 
Most  of  the  elementary  schools  are  coeducational ;  in 
the  secondary  schools  the  sexes  are  segregated ;  in  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning  coeducation  prevails, 
the  right  of  girls  to  attend  being  granted  as  a  matter 


128      THE   MODERN   WOMAN 's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

of  course.  Girls  were  admitted  to  the  high  schools  also 
without  any  opposition.  These  measures  were  due  to 
Minister  Thorbecke.  Thirty  years  ago  the  first  woman 
registered  at  the  University  of  Ley  den.  Women 
study  and  are  granted  degrees  in  all  departments  of  the 
universities  of  Leyden,  Utrecht,  Groningen,  and  Am- 
sterdam. In  the  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  there  are  fewer  women  teachers 
than  men,  and  the  salary  of  the  women  teachers  is 
lower.  Women  are  now  being  appointed  as  science 
teachers  in  boys'  schools  also.  The  government  is 
planning  measures  opposed  to  having  married  women 
as  teachers  and  as  employees  in  the  postal  service. 
The  women's  clubs  are  vigorously  protesting  against 
this.  Women  serve  as  examination  commissioners 
and  as  members  of  school  boards,  though  in  small 
numbers.  The  city  school  boards  rely  almost  entirely 
upon  women  for  supervising  the  instruction  in  needle- 
work. Since  1904  two  women  were  appointed  as  state 
school  inspectors,  with  salaries  only  sufficient  for 
maintenance. 

In  the  Netherlands  there  are  20  women  doctors 
(31  including  those  in  the  colonies),  57  women  drug- 
gists, 5  women  lawyers,  and  one  woman  lecturer  in 
the  University  of  Groningen.  There  are  three  women 
preachers  in  the  Liberal  "League  of  Protestants." 
Since  1899  4  women  have  been  factory  inspectors; 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 29 

2,  prison  superintendents ;  2,  superintendents  of  rural 
schools.  Thirty-four  are  in  the  courts  for  the  pro- 
tection of  wards.  Women  participate  in  the  care  of 
the  poor  and  the  care  of  dependent  children.  The 
care  of  dependent  children  is  in  the  hands  of  a  national 
society,  Pro  juveniute,  which  aided  in  securing  juvenile 
courts  in  the  Netherlands.  Especially  useful  in  the 
education  and  support  of  workingwomen  has  been  the 
Tessel  Benefit  Society  (Tessel  Schadeverein),  which  is 
national  in  its  organization. 

It  will  be  well  to  state  here  that  the  appointment  of 
women  factory  inspectors  was  secured  in  a  rather 
original  manner.  In  1898  a  national  exhibition  of 
commodities  produced  by  women  was  held  in  the 
Hague.  In  a  conspicuous  place  the  women  placed  an 
empty  picture  frame  with  this  inscription:  "The 
Women  Inspectors  of  all  These  Commodities  Pro- 
duced by  Women."    This  hastened  results. 

The  shop  assistants  of  both  sexes  organized  them- 
selves conjointly  in  Amsterdam  in  1898.  There  are 
two  organizations  of  domestic  servants.  The  Dutch 
woman's  rights  advocates  proved  by  investigation  that 
for  the  same  work  the  workingwomen  —  because  they 
were  women  —  were  paid  50  per  cent  less  than  men. 
The  "Workingwomen's  Information  Bureau,"  which 
was  made  into  a  permanent  institution  as  a  result  of 
the  exhibition  of  1898,  has  been  concerning  itself  with 


130      THE   MODERN   WOMAN' S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  protection  of  workingwomen  and  with  their 
organization.  The  women  organizers  belong  to  the 
middle  class.  The  SociaHst  party  in  the  Netherlands 
has  been  organizing  workingwomen  into  trade-unions. 
In  this  the  party  has  encountered  the  same  difficulties 
as  exist  elsewhere;  to  the  present  time  it  can  point 
only  to  small  successes.  Two  of  the  Socialist  woman's 
rights  advocates  are  Henrietta  Roland  and  Roosje  Vos. 
Henrietta  Roland  is  of  middle-class  parentage,  being 
the  daughter  of  a  lawyer;  she  is  the  wife  of  an  artist 
of  repute.  Roosje  Vos,  on  the  contrary,  comes  from 
the  lower  classes.  Both  of  these  women  played  an 
important  part  in  the  strike  of  1903.  They  organized 
the  "United  Garment  Workers'  Union." 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  woman  can  be  ruler  of 
the  Netherlands,  the  Dutch  women  possess  only  an 
insignificant  right  of  suffrage.  In  the  dike  associa- 
tions they  have  a  right  to  vote  if  they  are  taxpayers  or 
own  property  adjoining  the  dikes.  In  June,  1908,  the 
Lutheran  Synod  gave  women  the  same  right  to  vote 
in  church  affairs  as  the  men  possess.  The  Evangelical 
Synod,  on  the  other  hand,  rejected  a  similar  measure  as 
well  as  one  providing  for  the  ordaining  of  women 
preachers.  An  attempt  to  secure  municipal  suffrage 
for  women  failed,  and  resulted  in  the  enactment  of 
reactionary  laws. 

In  1883  Dr.  Aletta  Jacobs  (the  first  woman  doctor 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  131 

in  the  Netherlands),  acting  on  the  advice  of  the  well- 
known  jurist  —  and  later  Minister  —  van  Houten, 
requested  an  Amsterdam  magistrate  to  enter  her 
name  on  the  Hst  of  municipal  electors.  As  a  tax- 
payer she  was  entitled  to  this  right.  At  the  same  time 
she  requested  Parliament  to  grant  her  the  suffrage  in 
national  elections.  Both  requests  were  surmnarily 
refused.  In  order  to  make  such  requests  impossible 
in  the  future,  parUament  inserted  the  word  "male"  in 
the  election  law.^  These  occurrences  aroused  in  the 
Dutch  women  an  interest  in  political  affairs;  and  in 
1894  they  organized  a  "Woman's  Suffrage  Society," 
which  soon  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The 
Liberals,  Radicals,  Liberal  Democrats,  and  Socialists 
admitted  women  members  to  their  political  clubs  and 
frequently  consulted  the  women  concerning  the  selec- 
tion of  candidates.  The  clubs  of  the  Conservative 
and  Clerical  parties  have  refused  to  admit  women. 
At  the  general  meeting  in  1906  a  part  of  the  members 
of  the  "Woman's  Suffrage  Society"  separated  from  the 
organization  and  formed  the  "Woman's  Suffrage 
League"  (the  Bond  voor  Vrouwenkiesrecht,  —  the  older 
organization  was  called  Vereeniging  voor  Vrouen- 
kiesrecht).  Both  carry  on  an  energetic  propaganda  in 
the  entire  country,  the  older  organization  being  the 
more  radical.  In  1908  the  older  organization  made 
1  Compare  similar  proceedings  in  the  United  States  and  England. 


132      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

all  necessary  preparations  for  the  Amsterdam  Con- 
gress of  the  Woman's  Suffrage  AlHance,  which  resulted 
in  a  large  increase  in  its  membership  (from  3500  to 
6000),  and  resulted,  furthermore,  in  the  founding  of  a 
Men's  League  for  Woman's  Suffrage  (modeled  after 
the  English  organization).  The  question  of  woman's 
suffrage  has  aroused  a  Uvely  interest  throughout  the 
Netherlands ;  even  the  Bond  increased  its  membership 
during  the  winter  of  1908  and  1909  from  1500  to  3500. 
In  September,  1908,  there  were  two  great  demon- 
strations in  the  Hague  in  favor  of  universal  suffrage 
for  both  men  and  women.  The  right  to  vote  in  Hol- 
land is  based  on  the  payment  of  a  property  tax  or 
ground  rent;  therefore  numerous  proposals  in  favor 
of  widening  the  suffrage  had  been  made  previously. 
When  a  liberal  ministry  came  into  power  in  1905,  it 
imdertook  a  reform  of  the  suffrage  laws;  in  1907  the 
Committee  on  the  Constitution,  by  a  vote  of  six  out 
of  seven,  recommended  that  ParHament  grant  active 
and  passive  suffrage  to  men  and  women.  But  ^vith 
the  fall  of  the  Liberal  ministry  fell  the  hope  of  having 
this  measure  enacted,  for  there  is  nothing  to  be  ex- 
pected from  the  present  government,  composed  of 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Conservatives.  As  has  already 
been  stated,  propaganda  is  in  the  meantime  being 
carried  on  with  increasing  vigor,  and  in  Java  a  woman's 
suffrage   society  has   also  been   organized.    A   noted 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  I33 

jurist,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Dutch  Bond  voor  Vrou- 
wenkiesrecht,  has  just  issued  a  pamphlet  in  which  he 
proves  the  necessity  of  granting  woman's  suffrage: 
"Man  makes  the  laws.  Wherever  the  interests  of  the 
immarried  or  the  married  woman  are  in  conflict  with 
the  interests  of  man,  the  rights  of  the  woman  will  be 
set  aside.  This  is  injurious  to  man,  woman,  and  child, 
and  it  blocks  progress.  The  remedy  is  to  be  found 
only  in  woman's  suffrage.  The  granting  of  woman's 
suffrage  is  an  urgent  demand  of  justice." 

SWITZERLAJID  ^ 

Total  population :  3,313,817. 
Women:  about  1,700,000. 
Men:  about  1,616,000. 

Federation  of  Swiss  Women's  Cubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

Switzerland's  existence  and  welfare  depend  on  the 
harmony  of  the  German,  the  French,  and  the  Italian 
elements  of  the  population.  Switzerland  is  accustomed 
to  considering  three  racial  elements;  out  of  three 
different  demands  it  produces^  one  acceptable  com- 
promise. Naturally  the  Swiss  woman's  rights  move- 
ment has   steadily   developed   in   the   most   peaceful 

'  Since  Switzerland  contains  a  preponderance  of  the  Germanic  eleiaent, 
it  will  be  considered  with  the  Germanic  countries. 


134      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

manner.  No  literary  manifesto,  no  declaration  of 
principles  of  freedom  is  at  the  root  of  this  movement. 
It  is  supported  by  pubUc  opinion,  which  is  gradually 
being  educated  to  the  level  of  the  demands  of  the 
movement.  The  woman's  rights  movement  began  in 
Switzerland  as  late  as  1880 ;  in  1885  the  Swiss  woman's 
club  movement  was  started.  The  Federation  of 
Women's  Clubs  is  made  up  of  cantonal  women's  clubs 
in  Zurich,  Berne,  Geneva,  St.  Gallen,  Basel,  Lausanne, 
Neuchatel,  and  in  other  cities,  as  well  as  of  inter- 
cantonal  clubs,  such  as  the  "Swiss  Public  Utility 
Woman's  Club"  (Schweizer  Gemeinniitziger  Verein), 
"la  Fraternite,"  the  " Intercan tonal  Committee  of 
Federated  Women,"  etc.  Recently  a  CathoUc  woman's 
league  was  formed.  Since  50  per  cent  of  the  Swiss 
women  remain  unmarried,  the  woman's  rights  move- 
ment is  a  social  necessity.  In  the  field  of  education 
the  authorities  have  been  favorable  to  women  in  every 
way.  In  nine  cantons  the  elementary  schools  are 
coeducational.  There  are  pubHc  institutions  for  higher 
learning  for  girls  in  all  cities.  In  German  Switzerland 
(Zurich,  Winterthur,  St.  Gallen,  Berne)  girls  are  ad- 
mitted to  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  for  boys, 
or  they  can  prepare  themselves  in  the  girls'  schools 
for  the  examination  required  for  entrance  to  the  uni- 
versities (Maiura).  There  are  18  seminaries  that 
admit  girls  only;  the  seminaries  in  Kiissnacht,  Rors- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  135 

chach,  and  Croie  are  coeducational.  Women  teachers 
are  not  appointed  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the 
cantons  of  Glarus  and  Appenzell-Outer-Rhodes.  On 
the  other  hand  in  the  cantons  of  Geneva,  Neuchatel, 
and  Ticino  59  to  66  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  are  women.  They  are  given  lower 
salaries  than  the  men.  The  canton  of  Zurich  pays 
(by  law)  equal  wages  to  its  men  and  women  teachers, 
but  the  additional  salary  paid  by  the  municipaUties 
and  rural  districts  to  the  men  teachers  is  greater  than 
that  paid  to  the  women.  In  its  elementary  schools 
the  canton  of  Vaud  employs  500  women  teachers, 
some  of  whom  are  married.  The  Swiss  universities 
have  been  open  to  women  since  the  early  sixties  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  As  in  France,  the  native  women 
use  this  right  far  less  than  foreign  women,  especially 
Russians  and  Germans.  The  total  number  of  women 
studying  in  the  Swiss  universities  is  about  700.  Most 
of  the  Swiss  women  that  have  studied  in  the  imiversi- 
ties  enter  the  teaching  profession.  Women  are  fre- 
quently employed  as  teachers  in  high  schools,  as 
clerks,  and  as  librarians.  Sometimes  these  posirions 
are  filled  by  foreign  women. 

The  first  woman  lecturer  in  a  university  in  which 
German  is  the  language  used  has  been  employed  in 
Berne  since  1898.  She  is  Dr.  Anna  Tumarkin,  a 
native  Russian,  having  the  right  to  teach  in  universi- 


136      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

ties  aesthetics  and  the  history  of  modern  philosophy. 
In  1909  she  was  appointed  professor.  In  each  of  the 
universities  of  Zurich,  Berne,  and  Geneva,  a  woman 
has  been  appointed  as  university  lecturer.  Women 
doctors  practice  in  all  of  the  larger  cities.  There  are 
twelve  in  Zurich.  The  city  council  of  Zurich  has 
decided  to  furnish  free  assistance  to  women  during 
confinement,  and  to  establish  a  municipal  maternity 
hospital.  In  Zurich  there  has  been  established  for 
women  a  hospital  entirely  under  the  control  of  women ; 
the  chief  physician  is  Frau  Dr.  Heim.  The  practice 
of  law  has  been  open  to  women  in  the  canton  of  Zurich 
since  1899,  and  in  the  canton  of  Geneva  since  1904. 
Miss  Anna  Mackenroth,  Dr.  jur.,  a  native  German, 
was  the  first  Swiss  woman  lawyer.  Miss  Nelly  Favre 
was  the  second.  Miss  Dr.  Briistlein  was  refused 
admission  to  the  bar  in  Berne.  Miss  Favre  was  the 
first  woman  to  plead  before  the  Federal  Court  in 
Berne,  the  capital.  As  yet  there  are  no  women 
preachers  in  Switzerland.  In  Lausanne  there  is  a 
woman  engineer.  In  the  field  of  technical  schools  for 
Swiss  women,  much  remains  to  be  done.  The  com- 
mercial education  of  women  is  also  neglected  by  the 
state,  while  the  professional  training  of  men  is  every- 
where promoted.  Women  are  employed  in  the  postal 
and  telegraph  service.  The  Swiss  hotel  system  ofiFers 
remunerative    positions    and    thoroughly    respectable 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  I37 

callings  to  women  of  good  family.  In  1900  the  num- 
ber of  women  laborers  was  233,912;  they  are  engaged 
chiefly  in  the  textile  and  ready-made  clothing  indus- 
tries, in  lacemaking,  cabinetmaking,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  food  products,  pottery,  perfumes,  watches 
and  clocks,  jewelry,  embroidery,  and  brushes.^  Owing 
to  French  influence,  laws  for  the  protection  of  women 
laborers  are  opposed,  especially  in  Geneva.  The  in- 
spection of  factories  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  men. 
Home  industry  is  a  blessing  in  certain  regions,  a  curse 
in  others.  This  depends  on  the  intensity  of  the  work 
and  on  the  degree  of  industrialism.  The  trade-union 
movement  is  still  very  weak  among  women  laborers. 
According  to  the  canton  the  movement  has  a  purely 
economic  or  a  sociaHst-political  character.  Only  a  few 
organizations  of  workingwomen  belong  to  the  Swiss 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  Since  1891  the  men's 
trade-imions  have  admitted  women.  The  first  women 
factory  inspectors  were  appointed  in  1908.  According 
to  the  census  of  August  9,  1905,  92,136  persons  in 
Switzerland  are  engaged  in  home  industry;  this  num- 
ber is  28.3  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  persons 
(325,022)  engaged  in  these  industries.     The  foremost 

'  In  Geneva  and  Lausanne  the  men  exerted  every  effort  to  exclude 
women  from  the  typographical  trade.  The  prohibition  of  night  work 
made  this  easy.  The  same  result  will  follow  in  the  railroad  and  postal 
service.  Therefore  in  the  Swiss  woman's  rights  movement  there  are  some 
that  are  opposed  to  laws  for  the  protection  of  women  laborers. 


138      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

of  the  home  industries  is  the  manufacture  of  em- 
broidery, engaging  a  total  of  65,595  persons,  of  whom 
53.5  per  cent  work  at  home.  The  next  important 
home  industries  are  silk-cloth  weaving,  engaging  12,478 
persons  (41  per  cent  of  the  total  employed) ;  watch 
making,  engaging  12,071  persons  in  home  industry  (or 
23.7  per  cent  of  the  total) ;  silk-ribbon  weaving,  en- 
gaging 7557  persons  (or  51.9  per  cent  of  the  total). 
The  highest  percentage  of  home  workers  is  found 
among  the  straw  plaiters  (78.8  per  cent) ;  then  follow 
the  military  uniform  tailors  (60.1  per  cent),  the  em- 
broidery makers  (53.5  per  cent),  the  wood  carvers  and 
ivory  carvers  (52  per  cent),  the  silk-ribbon  weavers 
(51.9  per  cent),  and  the  ready-made  clothing  workers 
(49.3  per  cent).  The  International  Association  for 
Labor  Legislation,  as  everybody  knows,  is  trying  to 
ascertain  whether  an  international  regulation  of  labor 
conditions  is  possible  in  the  embroidery-making  indus- 
try. The  statistics  just  given  indicate  the  importance 
of  this  investigation  for  Switzerland.  The  statistics 
of  the  home  industries  of  Switzerland  will  be  found  in 
the  ninth  issue  of  the  second  volume  of  the  Swiss 
Statistical  Review  {Zeitschrijt  jUr  Schweizerische  Statis- 
tik). 

The  new  Swiss  law  for  the  protection  of  women 
laborers  has  produced  a  number  of  genuine  improve- 
ments   for    the  workingwomen.     A  maximimi  work- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  139 

ing  day  of  10  hours  and  a  working  week  of  60  hours 
have  been  established.  Women  can  work  overtime 
not  more  than  60  days  a  year;  they  are  then  paid  at 
least  25  per  cent  extra.  The  most  significant  innova- 
tion is  the  legal  regulation  of  vacations.  Every  laborer 
that  is  not  doing  piecework  or  being  paid  by  the 
hour  must,  after  one  year  of  continuous  service  for 
the  same  firm,  be  granted  sLx  consecutive  days  of 
vacation  with  full  pay;  after  two  years  of  continuous 
service  for  the  same  firm  the  laborer  must  be  given 
eight  days;  after  three  years  of  service  ten  days; 
and  after  the  fourth  year  twelve  days  annually.  A 
violation  of  this  law  renders  the  offending  employer 
liable  to  a  fine  of  200  to  300  francs  ($40  to  $60). 

In  191 2  a  new  civil  code  will  come  into  force.  Its 
composition  has  been  influenced  by  the  German  Civil 
Code.  The  government,  however,  regarded  the  "Swiss 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs"  as  the  representative 
of  the  women,  and  charged  a  member  of  the  code 
conmiission  to  put  himself  into  communication  with 
the  executive  committee  of  the  Federation  and  to 
express  the  wishes  of  the  Federation  at  the  dehbera- 
tions  of  the  committee.  This  is  better  than  nothing, 
but  still  insufficient.  When  the  civil  code  had  been 
adopted,  every  male  elector  was  given  a  copy;  the 
women's  clubs  secured  copies  only  after  prolonged 
effort. 


140      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  property  laws  in  the  new  Swiss  Civil  Code 
provide  for  joint  property  holding,  —  not  separation  of 
property  rights.  However,  even  with  joint  property 
holding  the  wife's  earnings  and  savings  belong  to  her 
(a  provision  which  the  German  cantons  opposed). 
On  the  other  hand,  affiliation  cases  are  admissible  (the 
French  cantons  opposed  them).  The  wife  has  the  full 
status  of  a  legal  person  before  the  law  and  full  civil 
ability,  and  shares  parental  authority  with  the  father. 
French  Switzerland  (through  the  influence  of  the 
Code  Napoleon)  opposes  the  pecuniary  responsibility 
of  the  illegal  father  toward  the  mother  and  child. 
Official  regulation  of  prostitution  has  been  aboHshed 
in  all  the  cantons  except  Geneva;  several  years  ago 
a  measure  to  introduce  it  again  was  rejected  by  the 
people  of  the  Canton  Zurich  by  a  vote  of  40,000  to 
18,000.  Geneva  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Inter- 
national Federation  for  the  Abolition  of  the  Ofiicial 
Regulation  of  Prostitution.  In  1909  the  abolition  of 
the  official  regulation  of  prostitution  was  again  de- 
manded in  the  city  coimcil. 

By  a  vote  of  the  people  the  Canton  Vaud  accepted 
a  measure  prohibiting  the  manufacture,  storage,  and 
sale  of  absinthe. 

Recently  the  Swiss  women  have  presented  a  petition 
requesting  that  an  illicit  mother  be  granted  the  right 
to  call  herself  "Frau"  and  use  this  designation  (Mrs.) 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  141 

before  her  name.  The  benevolent  purpose  of  this 
movement  is  self-evident.  Through  this  measure  the 
illicit  mother  is  placed  in  a  position  enabling  her  openly 
to  devote  herself  to  the  rearing  of  her  child.  With 
this  purpose  in  view,  not  less  than  10,000  women  have 
signed  a  petition  to  the  Swiss  Federal  Council,  request- 
ing that  a  law  be  enacted  compelling  registrars  to  use 
the  title  "Frau"  (Mrs.)  when  requested  to  do  so  by 
the  person  concerned.  Thirty-four  women's  clubs 
have  collectively  declared  in  favor  of  this  petition. 

Women  exercise  the  right  of  municipal  suffrage 
only  in  those  localities  whose  male  population  is 
absent  at  work  during  a  large  part  of  the  year  (as  in 
Russia).  Women  can  be  elected  as  members  of  school 
boards  and  as  poor-law  administrators  in  the  Canton 
Zurich;  as  members  of  school  boards  in  the  Canton 
Neuchatel.  The  question  of  granting  women  the 
right  to  vote  in  church  affairs  has  long  been  advocated 
in  the  Canton  Geneva  by  the  Reverend  Thomas 
Muller,  a  member  of  the  Consistory  of  the  National 
Protestant  Church,  and  by  Herr  Locher,  Chief  of  the 
Department  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  Canton 
Zurich.  In  the  Canton  Geneva,  where  there  is  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state,  agitation  in  favor  of  the 
reform  is  being  carried  on.  The  women  in  the  Canton 
Vaud  have  exercised  the  right  to  vote  in  the  Eglisc 
litre  since  1899,  ^^^  '^^  the  Eglise  nationale  since  1908. 


142      THE   MODERN   WOMAN 'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Since  1909,  women  have  exercised  the  right  to  vote 
in  the  Eglise  evangelique  libre  of  Geneva.  The  woman's 
suffrage  movement  was  really  started  by  the  renowned 
Professor  Hilty,  of  Berne,  who  declared  himself  (in 
the  Swiss  Year  Book  of  1897)  in  favor  of  woman's 
suffrage.  The  first  society  concerning  itself  exclusively 
with  woman's  suffrage  originated  in  Geneva  {Associa- 
tion pour  le  suffrage  feminin).  Later  other  organiza- 
tions were  formed  in  Lausanne,  Chaux  de  Fonds, 
Neuenburg,  and  Olten.  The  Woman's  Reading  Circle 
of  Berne  had,  since  1906,  demanded  political  rights  for 
women,  and  the  Zurich  Society  for  the  Reform  of 
Education  for  Girls  had  worked  in  favor  of  woman's 
suffrage.  On  May  12,  1908,  these  seven  societies 
organized  themselves  into  the  National  Woman's 
Suffrage  League,  and  in  June  afl5Hated  with  the  Inter- 
national Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance.  The  Report  of 
the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Congress,  Amster- 
dam, 1908,  explains  in  a  very  lucid  manner  the  political 
backwardness  of  the  Swiss  women:  Switzerland  re- 
gards itself  as  the  model  democracy;  time  has  been 
required  to  make  it  clear  that  politically  the  women  of 
this  model  state  still  have  everything  to  achieve. 
The  meeting  of  the  Committee  of  the  International 
Council  of  Women  in  Geneva  (September,  1908) 
accomplished  much  for  the  movement. 
The    Swiss    Woman's    PubUc  Utility  Association, 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES        1 43 

which  had  refused  to  join  the  Swiss  Federation  of 
Women's  Clubs  because  the  Federation  concerned 
itself  with  pohtical  affairs  (the  Public  Utility  Associa- 
tion wishing  to  restrict  itself  to  public  utilities  only), 
was  given  this  instructive  answer  by  Professor  Hilty : 
"  Public  utility  and  poHtics  are  not  mutually  exclusive ; 
an  educated  woman  that  wishes  to  make  a  living  with- 
out troubling  herself  about  poUtics  is  incomprehensible 
to  me.  The  women  ought  to  take  Carlyle's  words  to 
heart:  'We  are  not  here  to  submit  to  everything, 
but  also  to  oppose,  carefully  to  watch,  and  to  win.' " 

Germany 

Total  population :  61,720,529. 
Women:  31,259,429. 

Men:  30,461,100. 

German  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

In  no  European  country  has  the  woman's  rights 
movement  been  confronted  with  more  unfavorable 
conditions;  nowhere  has  it  been  more  persistently 
opposed.  In  recent  times  the  women  of  no  other  coun- 
try have  lived  through  conditions  of  war  such  as  the 
German  women  underwent  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  and  from  1807  to  181 2.  Such  violence  leaves  a 
deep  imprint  on  the  character  of  a  nation. 


144      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Moreover,  it  has  been  the  fate  of  no  other  civiUzed 
nation  to  owe  its  political  existence  to  a  war  trium- 
phantly fought  out  in  less  than  one  generation.  Every 
war,  every  accentuation  and  promotion  of  miUtarism 
is  a  weakening  of  the  forces  of  civilization  and  of 
woman's  influence.  "German  masculinity  is  still  so 
young,"  I  once  heard  somebody  say. 

A  reinforcement  of  the  woman's  rights  movement 
by  a  large  Liberal  majority  in  the  national  assembUes, 
such  as  we  find  in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  is  not 
to  be  thought  of  in  Germany.  The  theories  of  the 
rights  of  man  and  of  citizens  were  never  applied  by 
German  Liberalism  to  woman  in  a  broad  sense,  and 
the  Socialist  party  is  not  yet  in  the  majority.  The 
political  training  of  the  German  man  has  in  many 
respects  not  yet  been  extended  to  include  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  American  Declaration  of  Independence 
or  the  French  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man ;  his 
respect  for  individual  liberty  has  not  yet  been  de- 
veloped as  in  England ;  therefore  he  is  much  harder 
to  -mn  over  to  the  cause  of  "woman's  rights." 

Hence  the  struggle  against  the  official  regulation  of 
prostitution  has  been  left  chiefly  to  the  German  women ; 
whereas  in  England  and  in  France  the  physicians, 
lawyers,  and  members  of  Parhament  have  been  the 
chief  supporters  of  abolition.  I  am  reminded  also  of 
the  inexpressibly  long  and  difficult  struggle  that  we 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES        I45 

women  had  to  carry  on  in  order  to  secure  the  admis- 
sion of  women  to  the  universities;  the  establishment 
of  high  schools  for  girls ;  and  the  improvement  of  the 
opportunities  given  to  women  teachers.  In  no  other 
country  were  women  teachers  for  girls  wronged  to 
such  an  extent  as  in  Germany.  The  results  of  the  last 
industrial  census  (1907)  give  to  the  demands  of  the 
woman's  rights  movement  an  invaluable  support: 
Germany  has  nine  and  a  half  million  married  women, 
i.e.  only  one  half  of  all  adult  women  (over  18  years 
of  age)  are  married.  In  Germany,  too,  marriage  is 
not  a  Hfelong  "means  of  support"  for  woman,  or  a 
"means  of  support"  for  the  whole  number  of  women. 
Therefore  the  demands  of  woman  for  a  complete  pro- 
fessional and  industrial  training  and  freedom  to  choose 
her  caUing  appear  in  the  history  of  our  time  with  a 
tremendous  weight,  a  weight  that  the  founders  of  the 
movement  hardly  anticipated. 

The  German  woman's  rights  movement  originated 
during  the  troublous  times  immediately  preceding  the 
Revolution  of  1848.  The  founders  —  Augusta  Schmidt, 
Louise  Otto-Peters,  Henrietta  Goldschmidt,  Ottihe  v. 
Steyber,  Lina  Morgenstern  —  were  "  f orty-eighters  " ; 
they  believed  in  the  right  of  woman  to  an  education, 
to  work,  and  to  choose  her  calling,  and  as  a  citizen  to 
participate  directly  in  public  life.  Only  the  first  three 
of  these  demands  are  contained  in  the  programme  of 


146      THE   MODERN   WOMAn'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  "German  General  Woman's  Club"  (founded  in 
1865  by  four  of  these  women,  natives  of  Leipzig,  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Leipzig).  At  that 
time  woman's  right  to  vote  was  put  aside  as  some- 
thing Utopian.  The  founders  of  the  woman's  rights 
movement,  however,  from  the  very  first  included  in 
their  programme  the  question  of  women  industrial 
laborers,  and  attacked  the  question  in  a  practical  way 
by  organizing  a  society^for  the  education  of  working- 
women.  The  energies  of  the  middle-class  women  were 
at  this  time  very  naturally  absorbed  by  their  own 
afifairs.  They  suffered  want,  material  as  well  as  intel- 
lectual. Therefore  it  was  a  matter  of  securing  a  Hveh- 
hood  for  middle-class  women  no  longer  provided  for 
at  home.  This  was  the  first  duty  of  a  woman's  rights 
movement  originating  with  the  middle  class. 

Of  special  service  in  the  field  of  education  and  the 
liberal  professions  ^  were  the  efforts  of  Augusta  Schmidt, 
Henrietta  Goldschmidt,  Marie  Loeper-Housselle, 
Helena  Lang,  Maria  Lischnewska,  and  Mrs.  Kettler. 
Kindergartens  were  established ;  also  courses  for  the 
instruction  of  adult  women,  for  women  principals  of 
high  schools,  for  women  in  the  Gymnasiums  and  Real- 
gymnasiums.  Moreover,  the  admission  of  women  to 
the  universities  was  secured ;  the  General  Association 

1  Industrial  training  was  promoted  chiefly  by  the  "  Lette-House," 
founded  in  Berlin  in  1865  by  President  Lette  and  his  vsdfe. 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  I47 

of  German  Women  Teachers  was  founded,  also  the 
Prussian  Association  of  Women  Public  School  Teachers, 
and  high  schools  for  girls.  The  Prussian  law  of  1908 
for  the  reform  of  girls'  high  schools  (pro\dding  for  the 
education  of  girls  over  1 2  years,  —  Realgymnasiums  or 
Gymnasiums  for  girls  from  12  to  16  years,  women's 
colleges  for  women  from  16  to  18  years)  was  enacted 
under  pressure  from  the  German  woman's  rights  move- 
ment. Both  the  state  and  city  must  now  do  more 
for  the  education  of  girls.  The  academically  trained 
women  teachers  in  the  high  schools  are  given  con- 
sideration when  the  appointments  of  principals  and 
teachers  for  the  advanced  classes  are  made.  The 
women  teachers  have  organized  themselves  and  are 
demanding  salaries  equal  to  those  of  the  men  teachers. 
At  the  present  time  girls  are  admitted  to  the  boys' 
schools  {Gymnasiums,  Realgymnasiums,  etc.)  in  Baden, 
Hessen,  the  Imperial  Provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine, Oldenburg,  and  Wurttemberg.  The  German 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  and  the  convention  of 
the  delegates  of  the  Rhenish  cities  and  towns  have 
made  the  same  demands  for  Prussia. 

The  Prussian  Association  of  Women  Public  School 
Teachers  is  demanding  that  women  teachers  be  ap- 
pointed as  principals,  and  is  resisting  with  all  its 
power  the  threatened  injustice  to  women  in  the  ad- 
justment of  salaries.     The  universities  in  Baden  and 


148      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Wurttemberg  were  the  first  to  admit  women;  then 
followed  the  universities  in  Hessen,  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
the  Imperial  Provinces,  and  finally,  —  in  1908,  — 
Prussia.  The  number  of  women  enrolled  in  Berlin 
University  is  400. 

About  50  women  doctors  are  practicing  in  Germany ; 
as  yet  there  are  no  women  preachers,  but  there  are  5 
women  lawyers,  one  of  whom  in  1908  pleaded  the 
case  of  an  indicted  youth  before  the  Altona  juvenile 
court.  Although  there  are  only  a  few  women  lawyers 
in  Germany,  women  are  now  permitted  to  act  as 
counsel  for  the  defendant,  there  being  60  such  women 
counselors  in  Bavaria.  Recently  (1908)  even  Bavaria 
refused  women  admission  to  the  civil  service. 

In  the  autumn  there  was  appointed  the  first  woman 
lecturer  in  a  higher  institution  of  learning,  —  this 
taking  place  in  the  Mannheim  School  of  Commerce. 
Within  the  last  five  years  many  new  callings  have  been 
opened  to  women :  they  are  librarians  (of  municipal, 
club,  and  private  libraries)  and  have  organized  them- 
selves into  the  Association  of  Women  Librarians; 
they  are  assistants  in  laboratories,  cUnics,  and  hospitals ; 
they  make  scientific  drawings,  and  some  have  special- 
ized in  microscopic  drawing ;  during  the  season  for  the 
manufacture  of  beet  sugar,  women  are  employed  as 
chemists  in  the  sugar  factories;  there  is  a  woman 
architect  in  Berlin,  and  a  woman  engineer  in  Ham- 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  149 

burg.  Women  factory  inspectors  have  performed 
satisfactory  service  in  all  the  states  of  the  Empire. 
But  the  future  field  of  work  for  the  German  women 
is  the  sociological  field.  State,  municipal,  and  private 
aid  is  demanded  by  the  prevaiUng  destitution.  At 
the  present  time  women  work  in  the  sociological  field 
without  pay.  In  the  future  much  of  this  work  must 
be  performed  by  the  professional  sociological  women 
workers.  In  about  100  cities  women  are  guardians 
of  the  poor.  There  are  103  women  superintendents  of 
orphan  asylums ;  women  are  sought  by  the  authorities 
as  guardians.  Women's  cooperation  as  members  of 
school  committees  and  deputations  promotes  the  organ- 
ized woman's  rights  movement.  The  first  woman  in- 
spector of  dwellings  has  been  appointed  in  Hessen. 
Nurses  are  demanding  that  state  examinations  be 
made  requisite  for  those  wishing  to  become  nurses; 
some  cities  of  Germany  have  appointed  women  as 
nurses  for  infant  children.  In  Hessen  and  Ostmark 
[the  eastern  part  of  Prussia],  women  are  district  ad- 
ministrators. There  is  an  especially  great  demand  for 
women  to  care  for  dependent  children  and  to  work 
in  the  juvenile  courts;  this  will  lead  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  paid  probation  ofiicers.  In  southern  Ger- 
many, women  police  matrons  are  employed;  in 
Prussia  there  are  women  doctors  employed  in  the 
police   courts.    There  are  also  women  school  physi- 


150      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

cians.  Since  1908,  trained  women  have  entered  the 
midwives'  profession. 

When  the  German  General  Woman's  Club  was 
formed  in  1865,  there  was  no  German  Empire;  Berlin 
had  not  yet  become  the  capital  of  the  Empire.  But 
since  Berlin  has  become  the  seat  of  the  Imperial  Par- 
liament, Berlin  very  naturally  has  become  the  center 
of  the  woman's  rights  movement.  This  occurred 
through  the  establishment  of  the  magazine  Frauenwohl 
[Woman's  Welfare]  in  1888,  by  Mrs.  Cauer.  In  this 
manner  the  younger  and  more  radical  woman's  rights 
movement  was  begun.  The  women  that  organized 
the  movement  had  interested  themselves  in  the  educa- 
tional field.  The  radicals  now  entered  the  sociological 
and  poUtical  fields.  Women  making  radical  demands 
allied  themselves  with  Mrs.  Cauer ;  they  befriended 
her,  and  cooperated  with  her.  This  is  an  undisputed 
fact,  though  some  of  these  women  later  left  Mrs. 
Cauer  and  'alHed  themselves  with  either  the  "Con- 
servatives" or  the  "SociaHsts." 

In  the  organization  of  trade-unions  for  women  not  ex- 
clusively of  the  middle  class,  Minna  Cauer  led  the  way. 
In  1889,  with  the  aid  of  Mr.  JuHus  Meyer  and  Mr.  Sil- 
berstein,  she  organized  the  "  Commercial  and  Industrial 
Benevolent  Society  for  Women  Employees."  The 
society  has  now  24,000  members.  State  insurance  for 
private  employees  is  now  (1909)  a  question  of  the  day. 


THE   GEEMANIC   COUNTRIES  151 

Jeannette  Schwerin  founded  the  information  bureau 
of  the  Ethical  Culture  Society,  which  furnished  girls 
and  women  assistants  for  social  work.  At  the  same 
time  Jeannette  Schwerin  demanded  that  women  be 
permitted  to  act  as  poor-law  guardians.  The  agitation 
in  public  meetings  and  legislative  assemblies  against 
the  Civil  Code  was  instituted  by  Dr.  Anita  Augsburg 
and  Mrs.  Stritt. 

The  opposition  to  state  regulation  of  prostitution 
was  begun  by  the  "radical"  Hanna  Bieber-Bohm  and 
Anna  Pappritz.  Lily  v.  Gikycki  was  the  first  to 
speak  publicly  concerning  the  civic  duty  of  women. 
The  Woman's  Suffrage  Society  was  organized  in  1901 
by  Mrs.  Cauer,  Dr.  Augsburg,  Miss  Heymann,  and 
Dr.  Schirmacher. 

In  1894  the  radical  section  of  the  "German  Federa- 
tion of  Women's  Clubs"  proposed  that  women's  trade- 
unions  be  admitted  to  the  Federation.  This  radical 
section  had  often  given  ofifense  to  the  "Conservatives" 
—  in  the  Federation,  for  instance  —  by  the  proposal 
of  this  measure;  but  the  radicals  in  this  way  have 
stimulated  the  movement.  As  early  as  1904  the 
Berhn  Congress  of  the  International  Council  of  Women 
had  shown  that  the  Federation,  being  composed 
chiefly  of  conservative  elements,  should  adopt  in  its 
programme  all  the  demands  of  the  radicals,  including 
woman's  suffrage.     The  differences  between  the  Radi- 


152      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

cals  and  the  Conservatives  are  differences  of  personality 
rather  than  of  principles.  The  radicals  move  to  the 
time  of  allegro;  the  conservatives  to  the  time  of  an- 
dante. In  all  public  movements  there  is  usually  the 
same  antagonism ;  it  occurred  also  in  the  English  and 
the  American  woman's  rights  movements. 

In  no  other  country  (with  the  exception  of  Belgium 
and  Hungary)  is  the  schism  between  the  woman's 
rights  movement  of  the  middle  class  and  the  woman's 
rights  movement  of  the  Socialists  so  marked  as  in 
Germany.  At  the  International  Woman's  Congress 
of  1896  (which  was  held  through  the  influence  of  Mrs. 
Lina  Morgenstern  and  Mrs.  Cauer)  two  Social  Demo- 
crats, Lily  Braun  and  Clara  Zetkin,  declared  that  they 
never  would  cooperate  with  the  middle-class  women. 
This  attitude  of  the  Social  Democrats  is  the  result  of 
historical  circumstances.  The  law  against  the  German 
Socialists  has  increased  their  antagonism  to  the  middle 
class.  Nevertheless,  this  harsh  statement  by  Lily 
Braun  and  Clara  Zetkin  was  unnecessary.  It  has  just 
been  stated  that  the  founders  of  the  German  woman's 
rights  movement  had  included  the  demands  of  the 
workingwomen  in  their  programme,  and  that  the 
Radicals  (by  whom  the  congress  of  1896  had  been 
called,  and  who  for  years  had  been  engaged  in  politics 
and  in  the  organization  of  trade-unions)  had  in  1894 
demanded  the  admission  of  women's  labor  organiza- 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 53 

tions  to  the  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  Hence  an 
alignment  of  the  two  movements  would  have  been 
exceedingly  fortunate.  However,  a  part  of  the  Social- 
ists, laying  stress  on  ultimate  aims,  regard  "class 
hatred"  as  their  chief  means  of  agitation,  and  are 
therefore  on  principle  opposed  to  any  peaceful  co- 
operation with  the  middle  class.  A  part  of  the  women 
Socialist  leaders  are  devoting  themselves  to  the  organi- 
zation of  workingwomen,  —  a  task  that  is  as  difficult 
in  Germany  as  elsewhere.  Almost  everywhere  in 
Germany  women  laborers  are  paid  less  than  men 
laborers.  The  average  daily  wage  is  2  marks  (50 
cents),  but  there  are  many  workingwomen  that  receive 
less.  In  the  ready-made  clothing  industry  there  are 
weekly  wages  of  6  to  9  marks  ($1.50  to  $2.25).  At 
the  last  congress  of  home  workers,  held  at  Berlin, 
further  evidence  of  starvation  in  the  home  industries 
was  educed.  But  for  these  wages  the  German  woman's 
rights  movement  is  not  to  be  held  responsible. 

In  the  social-political  field  the  woman's  rights  ad- 
vocates hold  many  advanced  views.  Almost  without 
exception  they  are  advocating  legislation  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  workingwomen;  they  have  stimulated 
the  organization  of  the  "Home-workers'  Association" 
in  Berlin ;  they  urged  the  workingwomen  to  seek  ad- 
mission to  the  Hirsch-Duncker  Trades  Unions  (the 
German  national  association  of   trade-unions) ;    they 


154      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

have  established  a  magazine  for  workingwomen,  and 
have  organized  a  league  for  the  consideration  of  the 
interests  of  workingwomen.  In  1907  Germany  had 
137,000  organized  workingwomen  and  female  domestic 
servants.^  Most  of  these  belong  to  the  socialistic 
trade-unions.  The  maximum  workday  for  women  is 
fixed  at  ten  hours.  The  protection  of  maternity  is 
promoted  by  the  state  as  well  as  by  women's  clubs. 

Peculiar  to  Germany  is  the  denominational  schism 
in  the  woman's  rights  movement.  The  precedent  for 
this  was  established  by  the  "German  Evangelical 
Woman's  League,"  founded  in  1899,  with  Paula  Miiller, 
of  Hanover,  as  President.  The  organization  of  the 
League  was  due  to  the  feeling  that  "it  is  a  sin  to  witness 
^ith  indifference  how  women  that  wish  to  know  noth- 
ing of  Biblical  Christianity  represent  all  the  German 
women."  The  organization  opposes  equality  of  rights 
between  man  and  woman ;  but  in  1908  it  joined  the 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  In  1903  a  "Catho- 
hc  Woman's  League"  was  formed,  but  it  has  not  joined 
the  Federation.  There  has  also  been  formed  a  "So- 
ciety of  Jewish  Women."  We  representatives  of  the 
interdenominational  woman's  rights  movement  deplore 
this  denominational  disunion.  These  organizations 
are  important  because  they  make  accessible  groups  of 
people  that  otherwise  could  not  be  reached  by  us. 

'  In  Germany  there  are  one  million  domestic  servants. 


THE   GERJkLA.NIC   COUNTRIES  1 55 

Another  characteristic  of  the  German  woman's  rights 
movement  is  its  extensive  and  thorough  organization. 
The  smallest  cities  are  to-day  visited  by  women  speak- 
ers. Our  "  unity  of  spirit,"  —  praised  so  frequently,  and 
now  and  then  ridiculed,  —  is  our  chief  power  in  the 
midst  of  specially  difiScult  conditions  in  which  we  must 
work.  With  tenacity  and  patience  we  have  slowly 
overcome  unusual  difficulties,  —  to  the  present  without 
any  help  worth  mentioning  from  the  men. 

In  the  Civil  Code  of  1900  the  most  important  de- 
mands of  the  women  were  not  given  just  consideration. 
To  be  sure,  woman  is  legally  competent,  but  the  prop- 
erty laws  make  joint  property  holding  legal  (wives 
control  their  earnings  and  savings),  and  the  mother  has 
no  parental  authority.  Relative  to  the  impending 
revision  of  the  criminal  law,  the  women  made  their 
demands  as  early  as  190S  in  a  general  meeting  of  the 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  when  a  three  days' 
discussion  took  place.  Since  1897  the  women  have 
progressed  considerably  in  their  knowledge  of  law. 
The  German  women  strongly  advocate  the  estabUsh- 
ment  of  juvenile  courts  such  as  the  United  States  are 
now  introducing.  The  Federation  also  demands  that 
women  be  permitted  to  act  as  magistrates,  jurors,  law- 
yers, and  judges. 

In  the  struggle  against  official  regulation  of  pros- 
titution the  women  were  supported  in   the  Prussian 


156      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Landtag  by  Deputy  Miinsterberg,  of  Dantzig.  Prus- 
sia established  a  more  humane  regulation  of  prostitu- 
tion, but  as  yet  has  not  appointed  the  extraparlia- 
mentary  commission  for  the  study  of  the  control  of 
prostitution,  a  measure  that  was  demanded  by  the 
women.  The  most  significant  recent  event  is  the  ad- 
mission of  women  to  political  organizations  and  meet- 
ings by  the  Imperial  Law  of  May  15,  1908.  Thereby 
the  German  women  were  admitted  to  political  life. 
The  Woman's  Suffrage  Society  —  founded  in  1902, 
and  in  1904  converted  into  a  League  —  was  able  pre- 
vious to  1908  to  expand  only  in  the  South  German 
states  (excluding  Bavaria).  By  this  Imperial  Law 
the  northern  states  of  the  Empire  were  opened,  and  a 
National  Woman's  Suffrage  Society  was  formed  in 
Prussia,  in  Bavaria,  and  in  Mecklenburg.  As  early  as 
1906,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Reichstag,  the  women 
took  an  active  part  in  the  campaign,  a  right  granted 
them  by  the  Vereinsrecht  (Law  of  Association).  In 
Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Oldenburg  the  women  worked 
for  universal  suffrage  for  women  in  Landtag  elections. 
Since  1908  the  political  woman's  rights  movement 
has  been  of  first  importance  in  Germany.  As  the  women 
taxpayers  in  a  number  of  states  can  exercise  municipal 
suffrage  by  proxy,  and  the  women  owners  of  large  es- 
tates in  Saxony  and  Prussia  can  exercise  the  suffrage 
in  elections  for  the  Diet  of  the  Circle  (Kreistag)  by 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 57 

proxy,  an  effort  is  being  made  to  attract  these  women 
to  the  cause  of  woman's  suffrage. 

In  1908  the  Protestant  women  of  the  Imperial  Prov- 
inces (Alsace  and  Lorraine)  were  granted  the  right  to 
vote  in  church  elections,  a  right  that  had  been  granted 
to  the  women  of  the  German  congregations  in  Paris 
as  early  as  1907.^ 

LUXEMBURG 

Total  population :  246,455. 
Women:  120,235. 

Men:  126,220. 

No  federation  of  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  woman's  rights  movement  in  Luxemburg  origi- 
nated in  December,  1905,  with  the  organization  of  the 
"Society  for  Women's  Interests"  {Verein  fur  Frauen- 
interessen),  which  has  worked  admirably.  The  so- 
ciety has  300  members,  and  is  in  good  financial  con- 
dition. Throughout  the  country  it  is  now  carrying 
on  successful  propaganda  in  the  interest  of  higher  edu- 
cation for  girls  and  in  the  interest  of  women  in  the  in- 
dustries. In  Luxemburg,  after  girls  have  graduated 
from  a  convent,  they  have  no  further  educational  facil- 

1  For  information  concerning  the  German  woman's  rights  movement 
we  recommend  The  Memorandum-book  of  the  Woman's  Rif^hls  Movement 
{Das  Merkbuch  der  Frauenbewegung),  B.  G.  Teubner,  Leipzig. 


158      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

ities.  The  society  has  established  a  department  for 
legal  protection,  and  an  employment  agency;  it  has 
published  an  inquiry  into  the  Living  conditions  in  the 
capital. 

In  the  capital  city  there  is  a  woman  member  of  the 
poor-law  commission ;  ten  women  are  guardians  of  the 
poor ;  one  woman  is  a  school  commissioner ;  and  there 
is  a  woman  inspector  of  the  municipal  hospital.  The 
society  is  well  supported  by  the  Uberal  elements  of  the 
government  and  the  public.  Its  chief  object  must  be 
the  establishment  of  a  secular  school  that  will  prepare 
women  for  entrance  to  the  universities. 

GERMAN  AUSTRIA 

Total  population  :  about  7,000,000. 
Women :  about  3,750,000. 

Men:  about  3,250,000. 

Federation  of  Austrian  Women's  Clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  Austrian  woman's  rights  movement  is  based 
primarily  on  economic  conditions.  More  than  50  per 
cent  of  the  women  in  Austria  are  engaged  in  non- 
domestic  callings.  This  percentage  is  a  strong  argu- 
ment against  the  theory  that  woman's  sphere  is  merely 
domestic.  Unfortunately  this  non-domestic  service  of 
the  Austrian   women   is   seldom   very   remunerative. 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES        1 59 

Austria  itself  is  a  country  of  low  wages.  This  condi- 
tion is  due  to  a  continuous  influx  of  Slavic  workers,  to 
large  agricultural  provinces,  to  the  tenacious  survivals 
of  feudalism,  etc.  Therefore  women's  wages  and  sal- 
aries are  lower  than  in  western  Europe,  and  low  living 
expenses  do  not  prevail  everywhere  (Vienna  is  one  of 
the  most  expensive  cities  to  Hve  in).  The  "Women's 
Industrial  School  Society,"  founded  in  1851,  attempted 
to  raise  the  industrial  abihty  of  the  girls  of  the  middle 
class.  In  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  time,  needle- 
work was  taught.  Free  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  adults  were  established  in  Vienna.  The  economic 
misery  following  the  war  of  1866  led  to  the  organization 
of  the  "Woman's  Industrial  Society,"  which  enlarged 
woman's  sphere  of  activity  as  did  the  Lette-Society  in 
Berlin.  Since  1868  the  woman's  rights  movement  has 
secured  adherents  from  the  best  educated  middle-class 
women,  —  namely,  women  teachers.  In  that  year  the 
CathoUc  women  teachers  organized  a  "Catholic  Women 
Teachers'  Society."  In  1869  was  organized  the  inter- 
denominational "Austrian  Women  Teachers'  Society." 
This  society  has  performed  excellent  service.  The  women 
teachers,  who  since  1869  had  been  given  positions  in 
the  public  schools,  were  paid  less  than  the  men  teachers 
having  the  same  training  and  doing  the  same  work. 
Therefore  the  women  teachers  presented  themselves 
to  the  provincial  legislatures,  demanded  an  increase 


l6o      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

in  salary,  and,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  male 
teachers,  secured  the  increase  by  the  law  of  189 1.  In 
1876  a  society  devoted  its  efforts  to  the  improvement  of 
the  girls'  high  schools,  which  had  been  greatly  neglected. 
In  1885  the  women  writers  and  the  women  artists  or- 
ganized, their  male  colleagues  having  refused  to  admit 
women  to  the  existing  professional  societies.  In  1888 
the  women  music  teachers  likewise  organized  them- 
selves. At  the  same  time  the  question  of  higher  edu- 
cation for  women  was  agitated.  In  Vienna  a  "lyceum" 
class — the  first  of  its  kind  —  was  opened  to  prepare  girls 
for  entrance  to  the  universities  (Abiturientenexamen). 
Admission  to  the  boys'  high  schools  was  refused  to 
girls  in  Vienna,  but  was  granted  in  the  provinces  (Trop- 
pau,  and  Mahrisch-Schonberg).  Girls  were  at  all  times 
admitted  as  outsiders  (Extraneae)  to  the  examinations 
held  on  leaving  college  {Abiturientenexamen).  In  this 
way  many  girls  passed  the  "leaving"  examination 
before  they  began  their  studies  in  Switzerland.  Until 
1896  the  Austrian  universities  remained  closed  to 
women.  The  law  faculties  do  not  as  yet  admit  women. 
The  women's  clubs  are  striving  to  secure  this  reform. 
Those  women  that  had  studied  medicine  in  Switzer- 
land previous  to  1896,  and  wished  to  practice  in  Austria, 
required  special  imperial  permission,  which  was  never 
withheld  from  them  in  their  noble  struggle. 

In  this  way  Dr.  Kerschbaumer  began  her  practice 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  l6l 

as  an  oculist  in  Salzburg.  However,  the  Countess 
Possanner,  M.D.,  after  passing  the  Swiss  state  exam- 
ination, also  took  the  Austrian  examination.  She  is 
now  practicing  in  Vienna. 

As  the  Austrian  doctors  have  active  and  passive 
suffrage  in  the  election  to  the  Board  of  Physicians 
(Arztekammer)  ^  Dr.  Possanner  also  requested  this 
right.  Her  request  was  refused  by  the  magistrate  in 
Vienna  because,  as  a  woman,  she  did  not  have  the  suf- 
frage in  municipal  elections,  and  the  suffrage  for  the 
Board  of  Physicians  could  be  exercised  only  by  those 
doctors  that  were  municipal  electors.^  Thereupon  Dr. 
Possanner  appealed  her  case  to  the  government,  to  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  finally  to  the  adminis- 
trative court.  The  court  decided  in  favor  of  the  peti- 
tion. It  must  be  emphasized,  however,  that  the  Board 
of  Physicians  favored  the  request  from  the  beginning. 

Women  preachers  and  women  lawyers  are  as  yet  un- 
known in  Austria.  As  in  former  times,  the  teaching 
profession  is  still  the  chief  sphere  of  activity  for  the 
middle-class  women  of  German  Austria.  According 
to  the  law  of  1869  they  can  be  appointed  not  only  as 
teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  for  girls,  but  also  as 

•  A  body  having  advisory  powers  in  matters  relating  to  the  medical 
profession  and  to  sanitary  measures.     [Tr.] 

*  The  question  was  decided  by  the  administrative  court  in  one  special 
case.     Compare  the  case  of  Jacobs,  Amsterdam. 


1 62      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's    RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

teachers  of  the  lower  classes  in  the  boys'  schools.  Their 
not  being  municipal  voters  has  two  results :  if  the  mu- 
nicipality is  seeking  votes,  it  appoints  men  teachers  that 
are  "favorably  disposed";  if  the  municipality  is  po- 
litically opposed  to  the  male  teachers,  it  appoints  women 
teachers  in  preference.  But  to  be  the  plaything  of 
poUtical  whims  is  not  a  very  worthy  condition  to  be  in. 
If  women  teachers  marry,  they  need  not  withdraw  from 
the  service  (except  in  the  province  of  Styria).  More 
than  lo  per  cent  of  the  women  teachers  in  the  whole  of 
Austria  are  married,  more  than  2  per  cent  are  widows. 
The  women  comprise  about  one  fourth  of  the  total  num- 
ber of  elementary  school  teachers,  of  whom  there  are 
9000.  Their  annual  salaries  vary  from  200  to  1600 
guldens  ($96.40  to  $771.20).  The  ordinary  salary  of 
200  guldens  is  so  insufficient  that  many  elementary 
school  teachers  actually  starve.  The  competition  of 
the  nuns  is  feared  by  the  whole  body  of  secular  school 
teachers.  In  Tyrol  instruction  in  the  elementary 
schools  is  still  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  re- 
ligious orders.  The  sisters  work  for  Httle  pay;  they 
have  a  community  life  and  consume  the  resources  of 
the  dead  hand. 

Of  the  secondary  schools  for  girls  some  are  eccle- 
siastic, some  are  municipal,  and  some  private.  The 
lycemns  give  a  very  good  education  (mathematics  is 
obligatory),  but  as  yet  there  are  no  ordinary  secondary 


THE  GERMANIC  COUNTRIES        1 63 

schools  whose  leaving  examinations  are  equivalent  to 
the  Abiturientenexamen  of  the  Gymnasiums.  The  "Aca- 
demic Woman's  Club"  in  Vienna  is  demanding  this 
reform,  and  the  Federation  of  Austrian  Women's  Clubs 
is  demanding  the  development  of  the  municipal  girls' 
schools  into  Realsckulen.  The  state  subsidizes  various 
institutions.  The  girls'  Gymnasiums  were  privately- 
founded.  Dr.  CeciUa  Wendt,  upon  whom  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  was  conferred  by  Vienna 
University,  and  who  took  the  state  examination  for 
secondary  school  teachers  in  mathematics,  physics,  and 
German,  was  the  first  woman  appointed  as  teacher  in 
a  Gymnasium,  being  appointed  in  the  Vienna  Gymna- 
sium for  girls.  Since  1871,  women  have  been  appointed 
in  the  postal  and  telegraph  service.  Like  most  of  the 
subordinate  state  officials,  they  receive  poor  pay,  and 
dare  not  marry.  The  women  telegraph  operators  in 
the  central  office  in  Vienna  are  paid  30  guldens  ($14.46) 
a  month.  "The  woman  telegraph  operator  can  lay 
no  claims  to  the  pleasures  of  existence."  "These  girls 
starve  spiritually  as  well  as  physically."  ^  During  the 
past  twenty-eight  years  salaries  have  not  been  increased. 
Every  two  years  a  two-week  vacation  is  granted. 
Since  1876  there  has  existed  a  relief  society  for  women 
postal  and  telegraph  employees, 

1  See  Dokumente  der  Frauen   {Documents  concerning  Women) ;   No- 
vember 15,  1899. 


1 64      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  woman  stenographer,  to-day  so  much  sought 
after  in  business  offices,  was  in  1842  absolutely  ex- 
cluded from  the  courses  in  Gabelsberger  stenography^ 
by  the  Ministry  of  PubHc  Instruction.  In  the  courts 
of  chancery  {Advokatenkanzleien)  women  stenographers 
are  paid  20  to  30  guldens  ($9.64  to  $14.46)  a  month. 
They  are  given  the  same  pay  in  the  stores  and  ofi&ces 
where  they  are  expected  to  use  typewriters.  They  are 
regarded  as  subordinates,  though  frequently  they  are 
thorough  speciaUsts  and  masters  of  languages.  In  the 
goverrmiental  service  the  women  subordinates  that 
work  by  the  day  (1.50  guldens,  —  73  cents)  have  no 
hope  for  advancement  or  pension.  The  first  woman 
chief  of  a  government  office  has  been  appointed  to  the 
sanitary  department  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Labor  De- 
partment, in  which  there  is  also  a  woman  librarian. 

It  is  not  easy  to  imagine  the  deplorable  condition  of 
workingwomen  when  women  public  school  teachers 
and  women  office  clerks  are  expected  to  live  on  a 
monthly  salary  of  $9 .  64  to  $  1 4 .  46 .  The  Vienna  inquiry 
into  the  condition  of  workingwomen  in  1896  disclosed 
frightfully  miserable  conditions  among  workingwomen. 
Since  then,  especially  through  the  efforts  of  the 
Socialists,  the  conditions  have  been  somewhat  improved. 

In  Vienna,  efforts  to  organize  women  into  trade- 
unions  have  been  made,  —  especially  among  the  book- 

1  The  German  system  of  stenography.     [Tr.] 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 65 

binders,  hat  makers,  and  tailors.  Outside  Vienna, 
organization  has  been  effected  chiefly  among  the  women 
textile  workers  in  Silesia,  as  well  as  among  the  women 
employees  of  the  state  tobacco  factories.  The  most 
thorough  organization  of  women  laborers  is  found  in 
northern  and  western^Bohemia  among  the  glassworkers 
and  bead  makers.  In  Styria,  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  and 
Carinthia  the  organization  of  women  is  found  only  in 
isolated  cases.  Everywhere  the  organization  of  women 
is  made  dif&cult  by  domestic  misery,  which  consumes 
the  energy,  time,  and  interest  of  the  women.  The  organ- 
ized Social-Democratic  women  laborers  of  German 
Austria  have  a  permanent  representation  in  the  "Wom- 
en's Imperial  Committee."  Of  the  50,000  women 
organized  in  trade-unions,  5000  belong  to  the  Social- 
Democratic  party.  The  Magazine  for  Workingwomen 
(Arbeiterinnenzeitung)  has  13,400  subscribers.  Women 
industrial  inspectors  have  proved  themselves  efficient. 
It  is  to  be  expected  as  a  result  of  the  wretched  eco- 
nomic conditions  of  the  workingwomen  that  prostitu- 
tion with  its  incidental  earnings  should  be  widespread 
in  German  Austria.  Vienna  is  the  refuge  of  those  seek- 
ing work  and  seclusion  {Verschwiegenheit).  The  num- 
ber of  iUicit  births  in  Vienna  is,  as  in  Paris,  one  third 
of  the  total  number  of  births.  For  these  and  other 
reasons  the  "General  Woman's  Club  of  Austria" 
{Allgemeine  Osterreiche  Frauenverein) ,  founded  in  1893 


l66      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

under  the  leadership  of  Miss  Augusta  f  ickert,  has  fre- 
quently concerned  itself  with  the  question  of  prostitu- 
tion, of  woman's  wages,  and  of  the  official  regulation  of 
prostitution,  —  always  being  opposed  to  the  last.  The 
International  Federation  for  the  Abolition  of  the  Ofl5- 
cial  Regulation  of  Prostitution  {internationale  aboli- 
nistische  Foderation)  was,  however,  not  represented  in 
German  Austria  before  1903 ;  the  Austrian  branch  of 
this  organization  being  established  in  1907  in  Vienna. 

The  middle-class  women  are  doing  much  as  leaders 
of  the  charitable,  industrial,  educational,  and  woman's 
suffrage  societies  to  raise  the  status  of  woman  in  Austria. 
The  most  prominent  members  of  these  societies  are : 
Augusta  Fickert,  Marianne  Hainisch,  Mrs.  v.  Sprung, 
Miss  Herzfelder,  v.  Wolfring,  Mrs.  v.  Listrow,  Rosa 
Maireder,  Maria  Lang  (editor  of  the  excellent  Doku- 
mente  der  Frauen,  which,  unfortunately,  were  discon- 
tinued in  1902),  Mrs.  Schwietland,  Elsie  Federn  (the 
superintendent  of  the  settlement  in  the  laborers'  dis- 
trict in  North  Vienna),  Mrs.  Jella  Hertzka,  (Mrs.) 
Dr.  Goldmann,  superintendent  of  the  Cottage  Lyceum, 
and  others. 

These  women  frequently  cooperate  with  the  leaders 
of  the  Socialistic  woman's  rights  movement,  Mrs. 
Schlesinger,  Mrs.  Popp,  and  others.  The  disunion  of 
the  two  forces  of  the  movement  is  much  less  marked  in 
Austria  than  in  Germany,  the  circumstances  much  more 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 67 

resembling  those  in  Italy.  In  these  lands  it  is  expected 
that  the  woman's  rights  movement  will  profit  greatly 
through  the  growth  of  Socialism.  This  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  the  Austrian  Liberals  are  not  equal  to  the 
assaults  of  the  Conservatives.  Universal  equal  suffrage, 
which  does  not  as  yet  exist  in  Austria,  has  its  most  en- 
thusiastic advocates  among  the  Socialists.  With  the 
Austrian  Socialists,  universal  suffrage  means  woman's 
suffrage  also.^ 

During  the  Liberal  era  two  rights  were  granted  to 
the  Austrian  women  T  since  1849  the  women  taxpayers 
vote  by  proxy  in  municipal  elections,  and  since  1861 
for  the  local  legislatures  {Provinciallandtagen)  ?■  In 
Lower  Austria  the  Landtag  in  1888  deprived  them  of 
this  right,  and  in  1889  an  attempt  was  made  to  deprive 
them  of  their  municipal  suffrage.  But  the  women  con- 
cerned successfully  petitioned  that  [they  be  left  in  pos- 
session of  their  active  municipal  suffrage.  Since  1873 
the  Austrian  women  owners  of  large  estates  vote  also 
for  the  Imperial  Parliament  through  proxy.  The 
Austrian  women,  supported  by  the  Socialist  deputies, 
Pernerstorfer,  Kronawetter,  Adler,  and  others,  have  on 
several  occasions  demanded  the  passive  suffrage  in  the 
election  of  school  boards  and  poor-law  guardians ;  they 

1  See  the  resolutions  of  the  party  sessions  in  Graz,  1900;  in  Vienna, 
1903 ;  and  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  conferences  of  the  International 
Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance,  in  1904,  1906,  and  igo8. 

*  Except  in  Illyria,  Carinthia,  and  Lower  Austria. 


1 68      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

have  also  demanded  a  reform  of  the  law  of  organization, 
so  that  women  can  be  admitted  to  political  organiza- 
tions. To  the  present  these  efforts  have  been  fruitless. 
When  universal  suffrage  was  granted  in  1906  (creating 
the  fifth  class  of  voters),  the  women  were  disregarded. 
In  the  pre\aous  year  a  Woman's  Suffrage  Committee 
had  been  established  with  headquarters  in  Vienna. 
It  is  endeavoring  especially  to  secure  the  repeal  of  para- 
graph 30  of  the  law  regulating  organizations  and  pubhc 
meetings.  This  law  (Uke  that  of  Prussia  and  Bavaria 
previous  to  1908)  excludes  women  from  political  organi- 
zation, thus  making  the  forming  of  a  woman's  suffrage 
society  impossible.  For  this  reason  Austria  cannot 
join  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance. 

During  the  consideration  of  the  new  municipal  elec- 
tion laws  in  Troppau  (Austrian  Silesia),  it  was  proposed 
to  withdraw  the  right  of  suffrage  from  the  women  tax- 
payers. They  resisted  the  proposal  energetically.  At 
present  the  matter  is  before  the  supreme  court.  In 
Voralberg  the  unmarried  women  taxpayers  were  also 
given  the  right  to  vote  in  elections  of  the  Landtag.  The 
legal  status  of  the  Austrian  woman  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  French  woman  :  the  wife  is  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  her  husband ;  the  property  law  provides  for  the 
amalgamation  of  property  (not  joint  property  holding, 
as  in  France).  But  the  wife  does  not  have  control  of 
her  earnings  and  savings,  as  in  Germany  under  the 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 69 

Civil  Code.  The  father  alone  has  legal  authority  over 
the  children. 

Here  the  names  of  two  women  must  be  mentioned : 
Bertha  v.  Suttner,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  peace 
movement,  and  Marie  v.  Ebner-Eschenbach,  the  great- 
est living  woman  writer  in  the  German  language.  Both 
are  Austrians;  and  their  country  may  well  be  proud 
of  them. 

In  Austria  the  authorities  are  more  favorably  dis- 
posed toward  the  woman's  rights  movement  than  in 
Germany,  for  example. 

HUNGARY  ^ 

Total  population :   19,254,559. 
Women :  9,672,407. 

Men:  9,582,152. 

Federation  of  Hungarian  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

At  first  the  Hungarian  woman's  rights  movement  was 
restricted  to  the  advancement  of  girls'  education.  The 
attainment  of  national  independence  gave  the  women 
greater  ambition ;  since  1867  they  have  striven  for  the 
establishment  of  higher  institutions  of  learning  for  girls. 
In  1868  Mrs.  V.  Veres  with  twenty- two  other  women 
founded  the  "Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Girls' 

1  For  political  and  practical  reasons  Hungary  will  be  discussed  at  this 
point. 


lyo      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Education."  In  1869,  the  first  class  in  a  high  school 
for  girls  was  formed  in  Budapest.  An  esteemed  scholar, 
P.  Gyulai,  undertook  the  superintendence  of  the  institu- 
tion. Similar  schools  were  founded  in  the  provinces. 
In  1876  the  Budapest  model  school  was  completed; 
in  1878  it  was  turned  over  to  a  woman  superintendent, 
Mrs.  V.  Janisch.  A  seminary  for  women  teachers  was 
established,  a  special  building  being  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose. Then  the  admission  of  women  to  the  university 
was  agitated.  A  special  committee  for  this  purpose 
was  formed  with  Dr.  Coloman  v.  Csicky  as  chairman. 
In  the  meantime  the  "  Society"  gave  domestic  economy 
courses  and  courses  of  instruction  to  adults  (in  its  girls' 
high  school).  The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  v. 
Wlassics,  secured  the  imperial  decree  of  November  18, 
1895,  by  which  women  were  admitted  to  the  universities 
of  Klausenburg  and  Budapest  (to  the  philosophical 
and  medical  faculties).  It  was  now  necessary  to  pre- 
pare women  for  the  entrance  examinations  {Abituri- 
entenexamen) .  This  was  undertaken  by  the  "General 
Hungarian  Woman's  Club"  {Allgemeine  ungarische 
Frauenverein).  With  the  aid  of  Dr.  Beothy,  a  lecturer 
at  the  University  of  Budapest,  the  club  formulated  a 
programme  that  was  accepted  by  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction.  By  the  rescript  of  July  18,  1896,  he 
authorized  the  establishment  of  a  girls'  gjminasium  in 
Budapest.    It  is  evident  that  such  reforms,  when  in 


THE   GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  171 

the  hands  of  intelligent  authorities,  are  put  into  working 
order  as  easily  as  a  letter  passes  through  the  mails. 

In  the  professional  callings  we  find  15  women  drug- 
gists, ID  women  doctors,  and  one  woman  architect. 
Erica  Paulus,  who  has  chosen  the  calling  of  architect 
(which  elsewhere  in  Europe  has  hardly  been  opened  to 
women),  is  a  Transylvanian.  Among  other  things  she 
has  been  given  the  supervision  of  the  masonry,  the  glass- 
work,  the  roofing,  and  the  interior  decoration  of  the 
buildings  of  the  Evangelical-Reformed  College  in 
Klausenburg.  A  second  woman  architect,  trained  in 
the  Budapest  technical  school,  is  a  builder  in  Besztercze. 

Higher  education  of  women  was  promoted  in  the 
cities,  the  home  industries  of  the  Hungarian  rural  dis- 
tricts were  fostered.  This  was  taken  up  by  the  "  Rural 
Woman's  Industry  Society"  {Landes-Frauenindus- 
trieverein).  Aprons,  carpets,  textile  fabrics,  slippers, 
tobacco  pouches,  whip  handles,  and  ornamental  chests 
are  made  artistically  according  to  antique  models  (this 
movement  is  analogous  to  that  in  Scandinavia).  Large 
expositions  aroused  the  interest  of  the  public  in  favor 
of  the  national  products,  for  the  disposal  of  which  the 
women  of  the  society  have  labored  with  enthusiasm. 
These  home  industries  give  employment  to  about  750- 
000  women  (and  40,000  men). 

Hungary  is  preeminently  an  agricultural  country 
and  its  wages  are  low.     The  promotion  of  home  indus- 


172      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

try  therefore  had  a  great  economic  importance,  for 
Hungary  is  a  center  of  traflSc  in  girls.  A  great  number 
of  these  poor  ignorant  country  girls,  reared  in  oriental 
stupor,  congregate  in  Budapest  from  all  parts  of  Hun- 
gary and  the  Balkan  States,  to  be  bartered  to  the 
brothels  of  South  America  as  "  Madjarli  and  Hungara."  ^ 
An  address  that  Miss  Coote  of  the  "  International  Vigi- 
lance Society"  delivered  in  Budapest  resulted  in  the 
founding  of  the  "Society  for  Combating  the  White 
Slave  Trade."  The  committee  was  composed  of 
Countess  Czaky,  Baroness  Wenckheim,  Dr.  Ludwig 
Gruber  (royal  public  prosecutor).  Professor  Vambery, 
and  others.  The  recent  Draconic  regulation  of  prosti- 
tution in  Pest  (1906)  caused  the  Federation  of  Hun- 
garian Women's  Clubs  to  oppose  the  official  regu- 
lation of  prostitution,  and  to  form  a  department  of 
morals,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  Hungarian  branch 
of  the  International  Federation  for  the  Abolition  of  the 
Official  Regulation  of  Prostitution.  Since  then,  public 
opinion  concerning  the  question  has  been  aroused ;  the 
laws  against  the  white  slave  traffic  have  been  made 
more  stringent  and  are  being  more  rigidly  enforced. 

A  new  development  in  Hungary  is  the  woman's  suf- 
frage movement  (since  1904),  represented  in  the  "Fem- 
inist Society"  (Feministenverein) .    During  the  past  five 
years  the  society  has  carried  on  a  vigorous  propaganda 
1  Dokumente  der  Frauen,  June  i,  1901. 


THE    GERMANIC   COUNTRIES  1 73 

in  Budapest  and  various  cities  in  the  provinces  (in 
Budapest  also  with  the  aid  of  foreign  women  speakers) ; 
recently  the  society  has  also  roused  the  countrywomen 
in  favor  of  the  movement.  Woman's  suffrage  is  op- 
posed by  the  Clericals  and  the  Social-Democrats , 
who  favor  only  male  suffrage  in  the  impending  introduc- 
tion of  universal  suffrage.^  On  March  10,  1908,  a  dele- 
gation of  woman's  suffrage  advocates  went  to  the  Parlia- 
ment. During  the  suffrage  debates  the  women  held 
public  meetings. 

From  the  work  of  A.  v.  Maclay,  Le  droit  des  femmes 
au  travail,  I  take  the  following  statements :  According 
to  the  industrial  statistics  of  1900  there  were  1,819,517 
women  in  Hungary  engaged  in  agriculture.  Industry, 
mining,  and  transportation  engaged  242,951 ;  state 
and  municipal  service,  and  the  liberal  callings  engaged 
36,870  women.  There  were  109,739  women  day  la- 
borers ;  350,693  domestic  servants;  24,476  women  pur- 
sued undefined  or  unknown  callings  ;  83,537  women 
lived  on  incomes  from  their  property.  Since  1890  the 
number  of  women  engaged  in  all  the  callings  has  in- 
creased more  rapidly  than  the  number  of  men  (26.3 
to  27.9  per  cent  being  the  average  increase  of  the  women 
engaged  in  gainful  pursuits).  In  1900  the  women 
formed  21  per  cent  of  the  industrial  population.  They 
were  engaged  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery 

*  The  proposed  law  grants  the  suffrage  even  to  male  illiterates. 


174      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

(29  per  cent),  bent- wood  furniture  (46  per  cent), 
matches  (58  per  cent),  clothing  (59  per  cent),  textiles 
(60  per  cent).  In  paper  making  and  bookbinding 
68  per  cent  of  the  laborers  are  women.  In  the  state 
mints  25  per  cent  of  the  employees  are  women;  the 
state  tobacco  factories  employ  16,720  women,  these 
being  94  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  employees.  Of 
those  engaged  in  commerce  23  per  cent  are  women. 

The  number  of  women  engaged  in  the  civil  service 
(as  private  secretaries)  and  in  the  liberal  callings  has  in- 
creased even  more  than  the  number  of  women  engaged 
in  industry.  The  women  engaged  in  oflSce  work  have 
organized.  In  1901  the  number  of  women  public 
school  teachers  was  6529  (there  being  22,840  men), 
i.e.  22.22  per  cent  were  women.  In  the  best  public 
schools  there  are  more  women  teachers  than  men,  the 
proportion  being  62  to  48 ;  in  the  girls'  high  schools 
there  are  273  women  teachers  to  145  men  teachers. 
In  1903  the  railroads  employed  511  women;  in  1898 
the  postal  service  employed  4516  women;  in  1899  the 
telephone  system  employed  207  women  (and  81  men). 
These  women  employees,  unlike  those  of  Austria,  are 
permitted  to  marry. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES 

In  the  Romance  countries  the  woman's  rights  move- 
ment is  hampered  by  Romance  customs  and  by  the 
Catholic  reUgion.  The  number  of  women  in  these 
countries  is  in  many  cases  smaller  than  the  number  of 
men.  In  general,  the  girls  are  married  at  an  early  age, 
almost  always  through  the  negotiations  of  the  parents. 
The  education  of  women  is  in  some  respects  very  de- 
ficient. 

FRANCE 

Total  population :  38,466,924. 
Women :  19,346,369. 

Men:  18,922,651. 

Federation  of  French  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

The  European  woman's  rights  movement  was  born  in 
France ;  it  is  a  child  of  the  Revolution  of  1789.  When 
a  whole  country  enjoys  freedom,  equality,  and  frater- 
nity, woman  can  no  longer  remain  in  bondage.    The 

175 


176      THE   MODERN   WOMAN 's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  apply  to  Woman  also. 
The  European  woman's  rights  movement  is  based  on 
purely  logical  principles;  not,  as  in  the  United  States,  on 
the  practical  exercise  of  woman's  right  to  vote.  This 
purely  theoretical  origin  is  not  denied  by  the  advocates 
of  the  woman's  rights  movement  in  France.  It  ought  to 
be  mentioned  that  the  principles  of  the  woman's  rights 
movement  were  brought  from  France  to  England  by 
Mary  Wollstonecraft,  and  were  stated  in  her  pam- 
phlet, A  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of  Women.  But 
enthusiastic  Mary  Wollstonecraft  did  not  form  a 
school  in  England,  and  the  organized  English  woman's 
rights  movement  did  not  cast  its  lot  with  this  revolu- 
tionist. What  Mary  Wollstonecraft  did  for  England, 
Olympe  de  Gouges  did  for  France  in  1789 ;  at  that  time 
she  dedicated  to  the  Queen  her  little  book.  The  Declara- 
tion of  the  RigJUs  of  Women  {La  declaration  des  droits 
des  femmes).  It  happened  that  The  Declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man  {La  declaration  des  droits  de  Vhomme)  of 
1789  referred  only  to  the  men.  The  National  Assembly 
recognized  only  male  voters,  and  refused  the  petition 
of  October  28,  1789,  in  which  a  number  of  Parisian 
women  demanded  universal  suffrage  in  the  election  of 
national  representatives.  Nothing  is  more  peculiar 
than  the  attitude  of  the  men  advocates  of  liberty 
toward  the  women  advocates  of  liberty.  At  that  time 
woman's  struggle  for  liberty  had  representatives  in  all 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 77 

social  groups.  In  the  aristocratic  circles  there  was 
Madame  de  Stael,  who  as  a  republican  (her  father  was 
Swiss)  never  doubted  the  equality  of  the  sexes ;  but  by 
her  actions  showed  her  belief  in  woman's  right  to  secure 
the  highest  culture  and  to  have  political  influence. 
Madame  de  Stael's  social  position  and  her  wealth  en- 
abled her  to  spread  these  views  of  woman's  rights ;  she 
was  never  dependent  on  the  men  advocates  of  freedom. 
Madame  Roland  was  typical  of  the  educated  republican 
bourgeoisie.  She  participated  in  the  revolutionary 
drama  and  was  a  "political  woman."  On  the  basis  of 
historical  documents  it  can  be  asserted  that  the  men 
advocates  of  freedom  have  not  forgiven  her. 

The  intelligent  people  of  the  lower  classes  are  repre- 
sented by  Olympe  de  Gouges  and  Theroigne  de  Meri- 
court.  Both  played  a  political  role ;  both  were  woman's 
rights  advocates ;  of  both  it  was  said  that  they  had  for- 
gotten the  virtues  of  their  sex,  —  modesty  and  submis- 
siveness.  The  men  of  freedom  still  thought  that  the 
home  offered  their  wives  all  the  freedom  they  needed. 
The  populace  finally  made  demonstrations  through 
woman's  clubs.  These  clubs  were  closed  in  1793  by 
the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  because  the  clubs 
disturbed  "public  peace."  The  public  peace  of  1793  ! 
What  an  idyl !  In  short,  the  regime  of  liberty,  equality, 
and  fraternity  regarded  woman  as  unfree,  unequal,  and 
treated  her  very  unfraternally.     What  harmony  be- 


178      THE    MODERN    WOMAN' S   RIGHTS    MOVEMENT 

tween  theory  and  practice !  In  fact,  the  Revolution 
even  withdrew  rights  that  the  women  formerly  pos- 
sessed. For  example,  the  old  regime  gave  a  noble- 
woman, as  a  landowner,  all  the  rights  of  a  feudal  lord. 
She  levied  troops,  raised  taxes,  and  administered  justice. 
During  the  old  regime  in  France  there  were  women 
peers ;  women  were  now  and  then  active  in  diplomacy. 
The  abbesses  exercised  the  same  feudal  power  as  the 
abbots ;  they  had  unlimited  power  over  their  convents. 
The  women  owners  of  large  feudal  lands  met  with  the 
provincial  estates,  —  for  instance,  Madame  de  Sevigne 
in  the  Estates  General  of  Brittany,  where  there  was 
autonomy  in  the  provincial  administration.  In  the 
gilds  the  women  masters  exercised  their  professional 
right  as  voters.  All  of  these  rights  ended  with  the  old 
regime ;  beside  the  politically  free  man  stood  the  po- 
litically unfree  woman.  Napoleon  confirmed  this  lack 
of  freedom  in  the  Civil  and  Criminal  Codes,  Napo- 
leon's attitude  toward  all  women  (excepting  his  mother, 
Madame  Mere)  was  such  as  we  still  find  among  the  men 
in  Southern  Italy,  in  Spain,  and  in  the  Orient.  His 
sisters  and  Josephine  Beauharnais,  the  Creole,  could  not 
give  him  a  more  just  opinion  of  women.  His  fierce 
hatred  for  Madame  de  Stael  indicates  his  attitude 
toward  the  woman's  rights  representatives.  The  great 
Napoleon  did  not  like  intellectual  women. 
The  Code  Napoleon  places  the  wife  completely  under 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 79 

the  guardianship  of  the  husband.  Without  him  she 
can  undertake  no  legal  transaction.  The  property  law 
requires  joint  property  holding,  excepting  real  estate 
(but  most  of  the  women  are  neither  landowners  nor 
owners  of  houses).  The  married  woman  has  had  inde- 
pendent control  of  her  earnings  and  savings  only  since 
the  enactment  of  the  law  of  July  13,  1907.  Only  the 
husband  has  legal  authority  over  the  children.  Such  a 
legal  status  of  woman  is  found  in  other  codes.  But 
the  following  pro\dsions  are  peculiar  to  the  Code 
Napoleon :  If  a  husband  kills  his  wife  for  committing 
adultery,  the  murder  is  "excusable."  An  iUicit  mother 
cannot  file  a  paternity  suit.  In  practice,  however,  the 
courts  in  a  roundabout  way  give  the  illicit  mother  an 
opportunity  to  file  an  action  for  damages. 

No  other  code,  above  all  no  other  Germanic  or  Slavic 
code,^  has  been  disgraced  by  such  paragraphs.  In  the 
first  of  the  designated  paragraphs  we  hear  the  Corsican, 
a  cousin  of  the  Moor  of  Venice ;  in  the  second  we  hear 
the  military  emperor,  and  general  of  an  unbridled,  un- 
disciplined troop  of  soldiers.  No  one  will  be  astonished 
to  learn  that  this  same  lawgiver  in  180 1  supplemented  the 
Code  with  a  despotic  state  regulation  of  prostitution. 
What  became  of  the  woman's  rights  movement  during 
this  arbitrary  military  regime  ?    Full  of  fear  and  anxi- 

1  Later  the  Code  Napoleon  infected  other  countries,  but  such  horrors 
originated  spontaneously  nowhere  else. 


l8o      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

ety,  the  woman's  rights  advocates  concealed  their 
views.  The  Restoration  was  scarcely  a  better  time  for 
advocating  woman's  rights.  The  philosopher  of  the 
epoch,  de  Bonald,  spoke  very  pompously  against  the 
equality  of  the  sexes,  "Man  and  woman  'are  not  and 
never  will  be  equal."  It  was  not  until  the  July  Revo- 
lution of  1830  and  the  February  Revolution  of  1848  that 
the  question  of  woman's  rights  could  gain  a  favorable 
hearing.  The  Saint  Simonians,  the  Fourierists,  and 
George  Sand  preached  the  rights  of  man  and  the  rights 
of  woman.  During  the  February  Revolution  the  women 
were  found,  just  as  in  1789,  in  the  front  ranks  of  the 
Socialists.  The  French  woman's  rights  movement  is 
closely  connected  with  both  political  movements. 
Every  time  a  sacrifice  of  Republicans  and  Democrats 
was  demanded,  women  were  among  the  banished  and 
deported :  Jeanne  Deroin  in  1848,  Louise  Michel,  in 
1851  and  1871. 

Marie  Deraismes,  belonging  to  the  wealthy  Parisian 
middle  class,  appeared  in  the  sixties  as  a  public  speaker. 
She  was  a  woman's  rights  advocate.  However,  in  a 
still  greater  degree  she  was  a  tribune  of  the  people,  a 
republican  and  a  politician.  Marie  Deraismes  and  her 
excellent  political  adherent,  Leon  Richer,  were  the 
founders  of  the  organized  French  woman's  rights  move- 
ment. As  early  as  1876  they  organized  the  "Society 
for  the  Amelioration  of  the  Condition  of  Woman  and  for 


THE  ROMANCE  COUNTRIES        l8l 

Demanding  Woman's  Rights";  in  1878  they  called  the 
first  French  woman's  rights  congress. 

The  following  features  characterize  the  modern 
French  woman's  rights  movement :  It  is  largely  re- 
stricted to  Paris ;  in  the  provinces  there  are  only  weak 
and  isolated  beginnings;  even  the  Parisian  woman's 
rights  organizations  are  not  nmnerous,  the  greatest  hav- 
ing 400  members.  Thanks  to  the  republican  and  social- 
ist movements,  which  for  thirty  years  have  controlled 
France,  the  woman's  rights  movement  is  for  political 
reasons  supported  by  the  men  to  a  degree  not  noticeable 
in  any  other  country.  The  republican  majority  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  republican  press,  and 
republican  Uterature  effectively  promote  the  woman's 
rights  movement.  The  Federation  of  French  Women's 
Clubs,  founded  in  1901,  and  reputed  to  have  73,000 
members,  is  at  present  promoting  the  movement  by  the 
systematic  organization  of  provincial  divisions.  Less 
kindly  disposed  —  sometimes  indifferent  and  hostile  — 
are  the  Church,  the  Catholic  circles,  the  nobility,  so- 
ciety, and  the  "liberal "  capitalistic  bourgeoisie.  A  sharp 
division  between  the  woman's  rights  movements  of  the 
middle  class  and  the  movement  of  the  Socialists,  such 
as  exists,  for  example,  in  Germany,  does  not  exist  in 
France.  A  large  part  of  the  bourgeoisie  (not  the  great 
capitalists)  are  socialistically  inclined.  On  the  basis 
of  principle  the  Republicans  and  Sociahsts  cannot  deny 


1 82      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  justice  of  the  woman's  rights  movement.  Hence 
everything  now  depends  on  the  opportuneness  of  the 
demands  of  the  women. 

The  French  woman  has  still  much  to  demand.  How- 
ever enlightened,  however  advanced  the  Frenchman 
may  regard  himself,  he  has  not  yet  reached  the  point 
where  he  will  favor  woman's  suffrage ;  what  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  denied  in  1789,  the  Republic  of  1870 
has  also  withheld.  Nevertheless  conditions  have  im- 
proved, in  so  far  as  measures  in  favor  of  woman's  suf- 
frage and  the  reform  of  the  civil  rights  of  woman  have 
since  1848  been  repeatedly  introduced  and  supported 
by  petitions.^  As  for  the  civil  rights  of  woman,  —  the 
principles  of  the  Code  Napoleon,  the  minority  of  the 
wife,  and  the  husband's  authority  over  her  are  still 
unchanged.  However,  a  few  minor  concessions  have 
been  made :  To-day  a  woman  can  be  a  witness  to  a  civil 
transaction,  e.g.  a  marriage  contract.  A  married 
woman  can  open  a  savings  bank  account  in  her  maiden 
name;  and,  as  in  Belgium,  her  husband  can  make  it 
impossible  for  her  to  withdraw  the  money !  A  wife's 
earnings  now  belong  to  her.  The  severe  law  concerning 
adultery  by  the  wife  still  exists,  and  affiliation  cases  are 
still  prohibited.     That  is  not  exactly  liberal. 

Attempts  to  secure  reforms  of  the  civil  law  are  being 
made  by  various  women's  clubs,  the  Group  of  Women 

» In  the  years  1848,  1851,  1871,  1874,  1882,  1885. 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 83 

Students  {Le  groupe  d^ etudes  feministes)  (Madame  Oddo 
Deflou),  and  by  the  committee  on  legal  matters  of  the 
Federation  of  French  Women's  Clubs  (Madame  d'Ab- 
badie). 

In  both  the  legal  and  the  political  fields  the  French 
women  have  hitherto  (in  spite  of  the  Republic)  achieved 
very  little.  In  educational  matters,  however,  the  re- 
publican government  has  decidedly  favored  the  women. 
Here  the  wishes  of  the  women  harmonized  with  the 
republican  hatred  for  the  priests.  What  was  done 
perhaps  not  for  the  women,  was  done  to  spite  the 
Church,     i  - 

Elementary  education  has  been  obligatory  since  1882. 
In  1 904- 1 905  there  were  2,715,452  girls  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  and  2,726,944  boys.  State  high  schools, 
or  lycees,  for  girls  have  existed  since  1880.  The  pro- 
gramme of  these  schools  is  not  that  of  the  German 
Gymnasiums,  but  that  of  a  German  high  school  for  girls 
(foreign  languages,  however,  are  elective).  In  the  last 
two  years  (in  which  the  ages  of  the  girls  are  16  to  18 
years)  the  curriculum  is  that  of  a  seminary  for  women 
teachers.  In  1904-1905  these  institutions  were  at- 
tended by  22,000  girls,  as  compared  with  100,000  boys. 
The  French  woman's  rights  movement  has  as  yet  not 
succeeded  in  establishing  Gymnasiums  for  girls;  at 
present,  efforts  are  being  made  to  introduce  Gymnasium 
courses  in  the  girls'  lycees.     The  admission  of  girls  to 


184      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  boys'  lycees,  which  has  occurred  in  Germany  and  in 
Italy,  has  not  even  been  suggested  in  France.  To  the 
present,  the  preparation  of  girls  for  the  universities  has 
been  carried  on  privately. 

The  right  to  study  in  the  universities  has  never  been 
withheld  from  women.  From  the  beginning,  women 
could  take  the  Abiturientenexamen  (the  university  en- 
trance examinations)  with  the  young  men  before  an 
examination  commission.  All  departments  are  open  to 
women.  The  number  of  women  university  students  in 
France  is  3609;  the  male  students  number  38,288. 
Women  school  teachers  control  the  whole  public  school 
system  for  girls.  In  the  French  schools  for  girls  most 
of  the  teachers  are  women;  the  superintendents  are 
also  women.  The  ecclesiastical  educational  system,  — 
which  still  exists  in  secular  guise,  —  is  naturally,  so 
far  as  the  education  of  girls  is  concerned,  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  women.  The  salaries  of  the  secular  women 
teachers  in  the  first  three  classses  of  the  elementary 
schools  are  equal  to  those  of  the  men.  The  women 
teachers  in  the  lycees  (agregees)  are  trained  in  the  vSemi- 
nary  of  Sevres  and  in  the  universities.  Their  salaries 
are  lower  than  those  of  the  men.  In  1907  the  first 
woman  teacher  in  the  French  higher  institutions  of 
learning  was  appointed,  —  Madame  Curie,  who  holds 
the  chair  of  physics  in  the  Sorbonne,  in  Paris.  In  the 
provincial  universities  women  are  lecturers  on  modem 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  185 

languages.  There  are  no  women  preachers  in  France. 
Dr.  jur.  Jeanne  Chauvin  was  the  first  woman  lawyer, 
being  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1899.  To-day  women 
lawyers  are  practicing  in  Paris  and  in  Toulouse. 

In  the  government  service  there  are  women  postal 
clerks,  telegraph  clerks,  and  telephone  clerks,  —  with  an 
average  daily  wage  of  3  francs  (60  cents).  Only  the 
subordinate  positions  are  open  to  women.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  women  employed  in  the  railroad  offices. 
Women  have  been  admitted  as  clerks  in  some  of  the 
administrative  departments  of  the  government  and  in 
the  public  poor-law  administration.  Women  are  em- 
ployed as  inspectors  of  schools,  as  factory  inspectors,  and 
as  poor-law  administrators.  There  is  a  woman  member 
of  each  of  the  following  councils:  the  Superior  Council 
of  Education,  the  Superior  Council  of  Labor,  and  the 
Superior  Council  of  Public  Assistance  (Conseil  Superior 
d' Education,  Conseil  Superior  du  Travail,  Conseil 
Superior  de  V Assistance  Piiblique).  The  first  woman 
court  interpreter  was  appointed  in  the  Parisian  Court 
of  Appeals  in  1909. 

The  French  woman  is  an  excellent  business  woman. 
However,  the  women  employed  in  commercial  estab- 
lishments, being  organized  as  yet  to  a  small  extent,  earn 
no  more  than  women  laborers,  —  70  to  80  francs  ($14 
to  $16)  a  month.  In  general,  greater  demands  are  made 
of  them  in  regard  to  personal  appearance  and  dress. 


1 86      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

There  is  a  law  requiring  that  chairs  be  furnished  during 
working  hours.  There  is  a  consumers'  league  in  Paris 
which  probably  will  efifect  reforms  in  the  laboring  condi- 
tions of  women.  The  women  in  the  industries,  of 
whom  there  are  about  900,000,  have  an  average  wage 
of  2  francs  (50  cents)  a  day.  Hardly  30,000  are  organ- 
ized into  trade-unions ;  all  women  tobacco  workers  are 
organized.  As  elsewhere,  the  French  ready-made 
clothing  industry  is  the  most  wretched  home  industry. 
A  part  of  the  French  middle-class  women  oppose  legis- 
lation for  the  protection  of  women  workers  on  the 
ground  of  "equality  of  rights  for  the  sexes."  ^  This 
attitude  has  been  occasioned  by  the  contrast  between 
the  typographers  and  the  women  typesetters ;  the  men 
being  aided  in  the  struggle  by  the  prohibition  of  night 
work  for  women.  It  is  easy  to  explain  the  rash  and  un- 
justifiable generalization  made  on  the  basis  of  this  ex- 
ceptional case.  The  women  that  made  the  generaliza- 
tion and  oppose  legislation  for  the  protection  of 
women  laborers  belong  to  the  bourgeois  class.  There 
are  about  1,500,000  women  engaged  in  agriculture,  the 
average  wage  being  i  franc  50  (about  37  cents).  Many 
of  these  women  earn  i  franc  to  i  franc  20  (20  to  24  cents) 
a  day.  In  Paris,  women  have  been  cab  drivers  and 
chauffeurs  since  1907.  In  1901  women  formed  35  per 
cent  of  the  population  engaged  in  the  professions  and  the 
'  See  the  resolutions  of  the  two  women's  congresses,  Paris,  1900. 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 87 

industries  (6,805,000  women;    12,911,000  men:  total, 
19,716,000). 

There  are  three  parties  in  the  French  woman's  rightSL, 
movement.  The  Catholic  {le  feminisme  chretien),  the 
moderate  (predominantly  Protestant),  and  the  radical 
(almost  entirely  socialistic).  The  Catholic  party  works 
entirely  independently;  the  two  others  often  cooper- 
ate, and  are  represented  in  the  National  Council  of 
Women  (Conseil  national  des  femnies),  while  the 
feminisme  chretien  is  not  represented.  The  views  of  the 
Catholic  party  are  as  follows :  "No  one  denies  that  man- 
is  stronger  than  woman.  But  this  means  merely  a 
physical  superiority.  On  the  basis  of  this  superiority 
man  dare  not  despise  woman  and  regard  her  as  morally 
inferior  to  him.  But  from  the  Christian  point  of  view 
God  gave  man  authority  over  woman.  This  does  not 
signify  any  intellectual  superiority,  but  is  simply  a  fact 
of  hierarchy."  ^  The  feminisme  chretien  advocates : 
A  thorough  education  for  girls  according  to  Catholic 
principles;  a  reform  of  the  marriage  law  (the  wife 
should  control  her  earnings,  separate  property  holding 
should  be  established) ;  the  same  moral  standard  for 
both  sexes  (abolition  of  the  official  regulation  of  prosti- 
tution) ;  the  same  penalty  for  adultery  for  both  sexes 
(however,  there  should  be  no  divorce) ;  the  authority 
of  the  mother  {autorite  maritale)  should  be  maintained, 
•  Le  mouvement  femittislc,  Countess  Marie  de  Villermont. 


1 88      THE   MODERN   WOMAN*  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

for  only  in  this  way  can  peace  prevail  in  the  family. 
"A  high-minded  woman  will  never  wish  to  rule.  It  is 
her  wish  to  sacrifice  herself,  to  admire,  to  lean  on  the 
arm  of  a  strong  man  that  protects  her."  ^ 

In  the  moderate  group  (President,  Miss  Sara  Monod), 
these  ideas  have  few  advocates.  Protestantism,  v/hich 
is  strongly  represented  in  this  party,  has  a  natural 
incUnation  toward  the  development  of  individuality. 
This  party  is  more  concerned  with  the  woman  that  does 
not  find  the  arm  of  the  "strong  man"  to  lean  on,  or 
who  detected  him  leaning  upon  her.  This  party  is 
entirely  opposed  to  the  husband's  authority  over  the 
wife  and  to  the  dogma  of  obhgatory  admiration  and 
sacrifice.  The  leaders  of  the  party  are  Madame  Bonne- 
vial,  Madame  Auclert,  and  others.  During  the  five 
years'  leadership  of  Madame  Marguerite  Durand,  the 
"  Fronde"  was  the  meeting  place  of  the  party. 

The  radicals  demand:  absolute  coeducation;  anti- 
military  instruction  in  history;  schools  that  prepare 
girls  for  motherhood;  the  admission  of  women  to 
government  positions;  equal  pay  for  both  sexes;  oflS- 
cial  regulation  of  the  work  of  domestic  servants;  the 
abohtion  of  the  husband's  authority;  municipal  and 
national  suffrage  for  women.  A  member  of  the  radical 
party  presented  herself  in  1908  as  a  candidate  in  the 
Parisian  elections.     In  November,  1908,  women  were 

1  Le  feminisme,  Emile  Ollivier. 


THE  ROMANCE  COUNTRIES        189 

granted  passive  suffrage  for  the  arbitration  courts  for 
trade  disputes  (they  already  possessed  active  suffrage). 
The  founding  of  the  National  Council  of  French 
Women  (Conseil  national  des  femmes  franqaise)  has  aided 
the  woman's  rights  movement  considerably.  Stimu- 
lated by  the  progress  made  in  other  countries,  the  French 
women  have  systematically  begun  their  work.  They 
have  organized  two  sections  in  the  provinces  (Touraine 
and  Normandy) ;  they  have  promoted  the  organization 
of  women  into  trade-unions;  they  have  studied  the 
marriage  laws ;  and  have  organized  a  woman's  suffrage 
department.  Since  1907  the  woman's  magazine,  La 
Franqaise,  published  weekly,  has  done  effective  work 
for  the  cause.  The  place  of  publication  (49  rue  Laffite, 
Paris)  is  also  a  public  meeting  place  for  the  leaders  of 
the  woman's  rights  movements.  La  Franqaise  arouses 
interest  in  the  cause  of  woman's  rights  among  women 
teachers  and  office  clerks  in  the  provinces.  Recently 
the  management  of  the  magazine  has  been  converted 
to  the  cause  of  woman's  suffrage.  In  the  spring  of  1909 
the  French  Woman's  Suffrage  Society  {Union  franqaise 
pour  le  soufrage  des  femmes)  was  organized  under  the 
presidency  of  Madame  Schmall  (a  native  of  England). 
Madame  Schmall  is  also  to  be  regarded  as  the  originator 
of  the  law  of  July  13, 1907,  which  pertains  to  the  earnings 
of  the  wife.  The  Union  has  joined  the  International 
Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance.    In  the  House  of  Deputies 


190      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

there  is  a  group  in  favor  of  woman's  rights.  The  French 
woman's  rights  movement  seems  to  be  spreading  rapidly. 
Emile  de  Morsier  organized  the  French  movement 
favoring  the  aboUtion  of  the  oflScial  regulation  of  prosti- 
tution. Through  this  movement  an  extraparliamen- 
tary  commission  (i  903-1 907)  was  induced  to  recognize 
the  evil  of  the  existing  ofhcial  regulation  of  prostitution. 
This  is  the  first  step  toward  abohtion. 

BELGIUM 

Total  population:  6,815,054. 
Women :  3,416,057. 

Men :  3,398,997. 

Federation  of  Belgian  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

It  is  very  difficult  for  the  woman's  rights  movement 
to  thrive  in  Belgium.  Not  that  the  movement  is  un- 
necessary there ;  on  the  contrary,  the  legal  status  of 
woman  is  regulated  by  the  Code  Napoleon,  hence  there 
is  decided  need  for  reform.  The  number  of  women 
exceeds  that  of  the  men  ;  hence  part  of  the  girls  cannot 
marry.  Industry  is  highly  developed.  The  question  of 
wages  is  a  vital  question  for  women  laborers.  Accord- 
ingly there  are  reasons  enough  for  instituting  an  or- 
ganized woman's  rights  movement  in  Belgium.  But 
every  agitation  for  this  purpose  is  hampered  by  the 


THE    ROMANCE    COUNTRIES  I9I 

following  social  factors :  Catholicism  (Belgium  is  99 
per  cent  Catholic),  ClericaHsm  in  Parliament,  and  the 
indifference  of  the  rich  bourgeoisie. 

The  woman's  rights  movement  has  very  few  adherents 
in  the  third  estate,  and  it  is  exactly  the  women  of  this 
estate  that  ought  to  be  the  natural  supporters  of  the 
movement.  In  the  fourth  estate,  in  which  there  are  a 
great  many  Socialists,  the  woman's  rights  movement  is 
identical  with  Socialism. 

Since  the  legal  status  of  woman  is  determined  by  the 
Code  Napoleon,  we  need  not  comment  upon  it  here. 
By  a  law  of  1900,  the  wife  is  empowered  to  deposit 
money  in  a  savings  bank  without  the  consent  of  her 
husband;  the  limit  of  her  deposit  being  3000  francs 
($600).  The  wife  also  controls  her  earnings.  If, 
however,  she  draws  more  than  100  francs  {$26)  a  month 
from  the  savings  bank,  the  husha^id  may  protest.  Women 
are  now  admitted  to  family  councils;  they  can  act  as 
guardians;  they  can  act  as  witnesses  to  a  marriage. 
Affihation  cases  were  made  legal  in  1906.  On  Decem- 
ber 19,  1908,  women  were  given  active  and  passive 
suffrage  in  arbitration  courts  for  labor  disputes. 

The  Belgium  secondary  school  system  is  exceptional 
because  the  government  has  established  a  rather  large 
number  of  girls'  high  schools.  However,  these  schools 
do  not  prepare  for  the  university  entrance  examinations 
(Abiturientenexamen) .    Women  contemplating  entering 


192      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  university,  must  prepare  for  these  examinations 
privately.  This  was  done  by  Miss  Marie  Popelin,  of 
Brussels,  who  wished  to  study  law.  The  universities 
of  Brussels,  Ghent,  and  Liege  have  been  open  to  women 
since  1 886.  Hence  Miss  Popelin  could  execute  her  plans ; 
in  1888  she  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws.  She 
made  an  attempt  in  1 888-1 889  to  secure  admission  to  the 
bar  as  a  practicing  lawyer,  but  the  Brussels  Court  of 
Appeals  decided  the  case  against  her.^ 

Miss  Marie  Popelin  is  the  leader  of  the  middle- class 
woman's  rights  movement  in  Belgium.  She  is  in  charge 
of  the  Woman's  Rights  League  {Ligue  du  droit  des 
femmes),  founded  in  1890.  With  the  support  of  Mrs. 
Denis,  Mrs.  Parent,  and  Mrs.  Fontaine,  Miss  Popelin 
organized,  in  1897,  an  international  woman's  congress  in 
Brussels.  Many  representatives  of  foreign  countries 
attended.  One  of  the  German  representatives,  Mrs. 
Anna  Simpson,  was  astonished  by  the  indifference  of  the 
people  of  Brussels.  In  her  report  she  says:  "Where 
were  the  women  of  Brussels  during  the  days  of  the  Con- 
gress ?  They  did  not  attend,  for  the  middle  class  is  not 
much  interested  in  our  cause.  It  was  especially  for 
this  class  that  the  Congress  was  held."    Dr.  Popelin 

*  Miss  Chauvin  made  a  similar  request  of  the  French  Chamber  of 
Deputies;  as  we  have  seen,  her  request  was  granted.  Dr.  Popelin  did 
not  make  her  request  of  the  Belgian  Chamber  of  Deputies,  which  had  not 
a  Republican  majority.  Dr.  Popelin  may  have  considered  such  a  step 
hopeless. 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 93 

is  also  president  of  the  league  that  has  since  1908  taken 
up  the  struggle  against  the  official  regulation  of  prosti- 
tution. 

The  schools  and  convents  are  the  chief  fields  of  activ- 
ity for  the  middle-class  Belgian  women  engaged  in  non- 
domestic  callings.  As  yet  there  are  only  a  few  women 
doctors.  One  of  these,  Mrs.  Derscheid-Delcour,  has 
been  appointed  as  chief  physician  at  the  Brussels 
Orphans'  Home.  Mrs.  Delcour  graduated  in  1893  at 
the  University  of  Berlin  summa  cum  laude;  in  1895  she 
was  awarded  the  gold  medal  in  the  surgical  sciences 
in  a  prize  contest  for  the  students  of  the  Belgian 
imiversities. 

In  Belgium  268,337  women  are  engaged  in  the  indus- 
tries. The  Socialist  party  has  recognized  the  organiza- 
tions of  these  women ;  it  was  instrumental  in  organiz- 
ing 250,000  women  into  trade-unions.  Elsewhere  this 
would  be  impossible.^ 

Madame  Vandervelde,  the  wife  of  the  Socialist  mem- 
ber of  ParUament,  and  Madame  Gatti  de  Gammond,  the 
publisher  of  the  Cahiers  feministes,  were  the  leaders  of 
the  Socialist  woman's  rights  movement,  which  is  or- 
ganized throughout  the  country  in  committees,  councils, 
and  societies.  Madame  Gatti  de  Gammond  died  in 
1905,  and  her  publication,  the  Cahiers  feministes,  was 

1  Since  iSgg  special  socialistic  workingwomen's  congresses  have  been 
held. 


194      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

discontinued.  The  secretary  of  the  Federation  of  So- 
ciaHst  Women  {Federation  de  femmes  socialistes)  is 
Madame  Tilmans.  Vooruit,  of  Ghent,  publishes  a 
woman's  magazine  :  De  Stem  der  Vrouw. 

The  women  are  demanding  the  right  to  vote.  The 
Belgian  women  possessed  municipal  suffrage  till  1830. 
They  were  deprived  of  this  right  by  the  Constitution 
of  1 83 1.  A  measure  favoring  imiversal  suffrage  (for 
men  and  women)  was  introduced  into  Parliament  in 
1894.  This  bill,  however,  provided  also  for  plural  vot- 
ing, by  which  the  property-owning  and  the  educated 
classes  were  given  one  or  two  additional  votes.  The 
Socialists  opposed  this,  and  demanded  that  each  person 
have  one  vote  {un  homme,  un  vote).  The  Clerical 
majority  then  repHed  that  it  would  not  bring  the  bill 
to  a  vote.  In  this  way  the  Clericals  remained  assured 
of  a  majority. 

For  tactical  purposes  the  Socialists  adopted  the  ex- 
pression —  un  homme,  un  vote.  It  harmonized  with  their 
principles  and  ideals.  At  a  meeting  of  the  party  in 
which  the  matter  was  discussed,  it  was  shown  that  imi- 
versal  suffrage  would  be  detrimental  to  the  party's 
interests ;  for  the  Socialists  were  convinced  that  wom- 
an's suffrage  would  certainly  insure  a  majority  for  the 
Clericals.  Hence,  in  meeting,  the  women  were  per- 
suaded to  withdraw  their  demand  for  woman's  suffrage 
on  the  grounds  of  opportuneness,  and  in  the  meantime  to 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 95 

work  for  the  inauguration  of  universal  male  suffrage  with- 
out the  plural  vote} 

In  the  Fronde,  Audree  Tery  summarized  the  situa- 
tion in  the  following  dialogue  :  — 

The  man.  Emancipate  yourself  and  I  will  enfranchise 
you. 

The  woman.   Give  me  the  franchise  and  I  shall  eman- 
cipate myself. 

The  man.   Be  free,  and  you  shall  have  freedom. 

In  this  manner,  concludes  Audree  Tery,  this  dialogue 
can  be  continued  indefinitely. 

Recently  the  middle-class  women  have  begun  to  show 
an  interest  in  woman's  suffrage.  A  woman's  suffrage 
organization  was  formed  in  Brussels  in  1 908 ;  one  in 
Ghent,  in  1909.  Together  they  have  organized  the 
Woman's  Suffrage  League,  which  has  affiliated  with  the 
International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance. 
,  Woman's  lack  of  rights  and  her  powerlessness  in  pub- 
He  Hfe  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  Antwerp,  in  1908, 
public  aid  to  the  unemployed  was  granted  only  to  men, 
—  to  unmarried  as  well  as  to  married  men.  As  for  the 
unmarried  women,  they  were  left  to  shift  for  them- 
selves. 

1  See  the  action  of  the  Socialists  in  Sweden  and  in  Hungary. 


196      THE   MODERN    WOMAN 's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 
ITALY 

Total  population :  32,449,754. 
Women:  about  16,190,000. 
Men :  about  16,260,000. 

Federation  of  Italian  Women's  Clubs. 
Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

National  unification  raised  Italy  to  the  rank  of  a  great 
power.  Italy's  political  position  as  a  great  power,  her 
modern  parliamentary  life,  and  the  Liberal  and  Socialist 
majority  in  her  Parliament  give  Italy  a  position  that 
Spain,  for  example,  does  not  possess  in  any  way.  Cathol- 
icism, Clericahsm,  and  Roman  custom  are  no  match  for 
these  modern  liberal  powers,  and  are  therefore  unable  to 
hinder  the  woman's  rights  movement  in  the  same  degree 
as  do  these  influences  in  Spain.  However,  the  Italian 
woman  in  general  is  still  entirely  dependent  on  the  man 
(see  the  discussion  in  Alaremo's  Una  Donna),  and  in  the 
unenUghtened  classes  woman's  feeUng  of  inferiority  is 
impressed  upon  her  by  the  Church,  the  law,  the  family, 
and  by  custom.  Naturally  the  woman  attempts,  as  in 
Spain,  to  take  revenge  in  the  sexual  field. 

In  Italy  there  is  no  strict  morality  among  married 
men.  Moreover,  the  opposition  to  divorce  in  Italy 
comes  largely  from  the  women,  who,  accustomed  to 
being  deceived  in  matrimony,  fear  that  if  they  are  di- 
vorced they  will  he  left  without  means  of  support.    "  Boys 


THE   ROAIANCE   COUNTRIES  1 97 

make  love  to  girls,  —  to  mere  unguided  children  without 
any  will  of  their  own,  —  and  when  these  boys  marry, 
be  they  ever  so  young,  they  have  already  had  a  wealth  of 
experience  that  has  taught  them  to  regard  woman  dis- 
dainfully—  with  a  sort  of  cynical  authority.  Even 
love  and  respect  for  the  innocent  young  wife  is  unable  to 
eradicate  from  the  young  husband  the  impressions  of 
immorality  and  bad  examples.  The  wife  suffers  from  a 
hardly  perceptible,  but  unceasing  depression  of  mind. 
Innocently,  without  suspicion,  uninformed  as  to  her 
husband's  past,  the  wife  persists  in  her  beUef  in  his 
manly  superiority  imtil  this  belief  has  become  a  fixed 
habit  of  thought,  and  then  even  a  cruel  revelation  can- 
not take  him  from  her."  ^ 

In  southern  Italy,  —  especially  in  Sicily,  —  Arabian 
oriental  conceptions  of  woman  still  prevail.  During 
her  whole  life  woman  is  a  grown-up  child.  No  woman, 
not  even  the  most  insignificant  woman  laborer,  can  be 
on  the  street  without  an  escort.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
boys  are  emancipated  very  early.  With  pity  and  arro- 
gance the  sons  look  down  on  the  mother,  who  must  be 
accompanied  in  the  street  by  her  sons. 

"Close  intellectual  relations  between  man  and 
woman  cannot  as  yet  be  developed,  owing  to  the  gener- 
ally low  education  of  woman,  to  her  subordination,  and 
to  her  intellectual  bondage.     While  still  in  the  schools 

*  Else  Hasse,  Ncuc  Bahnen. 


1 98      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  boy  is  trained  for  political  life.  The  average  Italian 
woman  participates  in  poUtics  even  less  than  the  Ger- 
man woman;  her  influence  is  purely  moral.  If  the 
ItaUan  woman  wishes  to  accept  any  ofl5ce  in  a  society, 
she  must  have  the  consent  of  her  husband  attested  by  a 
notary.  Just  as  in  ancient  times,  the  non-professional 
interests  of  the  husband  are,  in  great  part,  elsewhere  than 
at  home.  The  opportunity  daily  to  discuss  political 
and  other  current  questions  with  men  companions  is 
fovmd  by  the  German  man  in  the  smaller  cities  while 
taking  his  evening  pint  of  beer.  The  Italian  man  finds 
this  opportunity  sometimes  in  the  cafe,  sometimes  in 
the  public  places,  where  every  evening  the  men  congre- 
gate for  hours.  So  the  educated  man  in  Italy  (even 
more  than  in  Germany)  has  no  need  of  the  intellectual 
quahties  of  his  wife.  Moreover,  his  need  for  an  edu- 
cated wife  is  the  less  because  his  misguided  precocity 
prevents  him  from  acquiring  anything  but  an  essentially 
general  education.  The  restricted  intellectual  rela- 
tionship between  husband  and  wife  is  explained  partly 
by  the  fact  that  the  cicisheo  ^  still  exists.  This  relation 
ought  to  be,  and  generally  is,  Platonic  and  pubHcly 
known.  The  wife  permits  her  friend  (the  cicisheo)  to 
escort  her  to  the  theater  and  elsewhere  in  a  carriage; 
the  husband  also  escorts  a  woman  friend.  So  husband 
and  wife  share  the  inwardly  moral  unsoimdness  of  the 

*  The  recognized  gallant  of  a  married  woman.     [Tr.] 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  1 99 

medieval  service  of  love  (Minnedienst) .  At  any  rate 
this  custom  reveals  the  fact  that  after  the  honeymoon 
the  husband  and  wife  do  not  have  overmuch  to  say  to 
each  other.  In  this  way  there  takes  place,  to  a  certain 
extent,  an  open  relinquishment  of  the  postulate  that,  in 
accordance  with  the  external  indissolubility  of  married 
life,  there  ought  to  be  permanent  intellectual  bonds  be- 
tween man  and  wife,  —  a  postulate  that  is  the  source  of 
the  most  serious  conscience  struggles,  but  which  has 
caused  the  great  moral  development  of  the  northern 
woman."  ^ 

Naturally,  under  such  circumstances,  the  woman's 
rights  movement  has  done  practically  nothing  for  the 
masses.  In  the  circles  of  the  nobility  the  movement, 
with  the  consent  of  the  clergy,  has  until  recently  con- 
fined itself  to  philanthropy  (the  forming  of  associa- 
tions and  insurance  societies,  the  founding  of  homes, 
asylums,  etc.)  and  to  the  higher  education  of  girls.^ 
In  a  private  audience  the  Pope  has  expressed  himself 
in  favor  of  women's  engaging  in  university  studies 
(except  theology),  but  he  was  opposed  to  woman's 
suffrage.  The  daughters  of  the  educated,  liberal  (but 
often  poor)  bourgeoisie  are  driven  by  want  and  con- 
viction to  acquire  a  higher  education  and  to  engage 

*  Marianne  Weber,  Zentralhlall. 

*  But  only  the  enlightened  clergy  —  those  living  in  Rome  —  con- 
sent to  the  higher  education  of  girls. 


200      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

in  academic  callings.  The  material  difl5culties  are  not 
great.  As  in  France,  the  government  has  during  the 
past  thirty-five  years  promoted  all  educational  meas- 
ures that  would  take  from  the  clergy  its  power  over 
youth. 

Elementary  education  is  public  and  obligatory.  The 
laws  are  enforced  rather  strictly.  Coeducation  no- 
where exists.    The  number  of  women  teachers  is  62,643. 

The  secondary  school  system  is  still  largely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Catholic  reUgious  orders.  There  are 
about  100,000  girls  and  nuns  enrolled  in  these  church 
schools ;  only  25,000  girls  are  in  the  secondary  state 
and  private  schools  (other  than  the  Catholic  schools), 
which  cannot  give  instruction  as  cheaply  as  the  re- 
ligious schools.  The  efforts  of  the  state  in  this  field 
are  not  to  be  criticized:  it  has  given  women  every 
educational  opportunity.  Girls  wishing  to  study  in 
the  universities  are  admitted  to  the  boys'  classical 
schools  (ginnasii)  and  to  the  boys'  technical  schools. 
This  experiment  in  coeducation  during  the  plastic 
age  of  youth  has  not  even  been  undertaken  by  France. 
To  be  sure,  at  present  the  girls  sit  together  on  the 
front  seats,  and  when  entering  and  leaving  class  they 
have  the  school  porter  as  bodyguard.  In  spite  of  all 
fears  to  the  contrary,  coeducation  has  been  a  success 
in  northern  Italy  (Milan),  as  well  as  in  southern  Italy 
(Naples). 


THE  ROMANCE  COUNTRIES        201 

The  universities  have  never  been  closed  to  women. 
In  recent  years  300  women  have  attended  the  univer- 
sities and  have  graduated.  During  the  Renaissance 
there  were  many  women  teachers  in  Italy.  This 
tradition  has  been  revived;  at  present  there  are  10 
women  university  teachers.  Dr.  jur.  Therese  Labriola 
(whose  mother  is  a  German)  is  a  lecturer  in  the  philoso- 
phy of  law  at  Rome.  Dr.  med.  Rina  Monti  is  a  uni- 
versity lecturer  in  anatomy  at  Pa  via. 

There  are  many  practicing  women  doctors  in  Italy. 
Dr.  med.  Maria  Montessori  (a  delegate  to  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Women  in  Berlin  in  1896)  is  a 
physician  in  the  Roman  hospitals.  The  Minister  of 
PubHc  Instruction  has  authorized  her  to  deliver  a 
course  of  lectures  on  the  treatment  of  imbecile  chil- 
dren to  a  class  of  women  teachers  in  the  elementary 
schools.  The  legal  profession  still  remains  closed  to 
women,  although  Dr.  jur.  Laidi  Poet  has  succeeded  in 
being  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Turin. 

In  government  service  (in  1901)  there  were  1000 
women  telephone  employees,  183  women  telegraph 
clerks,  and  161  women  office  clerks.  These  positions 
are  much  sought  after  by  men.  The  number  of 
women  employed  in  commerce  is  18,000;  the  total 
number  of  persons  employed  in  commerce  being 
57,087.  Recently  women  have  been  appointed  as 
factory  inspectors. 


202      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  beginnings  of  the  modern  woman's  rights  move- 
ment coincide  with  the'  political  upheavals  that  oc- 
curred between  1859  and  1870.  When  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy  had  been  established,  Jessie  White  Mario 
demanded  a  reform  of  the  legal,  poHtical,  and  economic 
status  of  woman.  Whatever  legal  concessions  have 
been  made  to  women  are  due,  as  in  France,  to  the 
Liberal  parliamentary  majority. 

Since  1877,  women  have  been  able  to  act  as  wit- 
nesses in  civil  suits.  Women  (even  married  women) 
can  be  guardians.  The  property  laws  provide  for 
separation  of  property.  Even  in  cases  of  joint  property 
holding,  the  wife  controls  her  earnings  and  savings. 
The  husband  can  give  her  a  general  authorization 
{allgenieinautorisation) ,  thus  giving  her  the  full  status 
of  a  legal  person  before  the  law.  These  laws  are  the 
most  radical  reforms  to  which  the  Code  Napoleon  has 
ever  been  subjected,  —  reforms  which  the  French  did 
not  venture  to  enact. 

The  Liberal  majority  made  an  attempt  in  1877  to 
emancipate  the  women  poUtically.  But  the  attempt 
failed.  Bills  providing  for  municipal  woman's  suffrage 
were  introduced  and  rejected  in  1880,  1883,  and  1888. 
However,  since  1890,  women  have  been  eligible  as 
poor-law  guardians.  The  eHte  among  the  Itahan  men 
loyally  supported  the  women  in  their  struggle  for 
emancipation.     Since  1881  the  women  have  organized 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  203 

clubs.  At  first  these  were  unsuccessful.  Free  and 
courageous  women  were  in  the  minority.  In  Rome 
the  woman's  rights  movement  was  at  first  exclusively 
benevolent.  In  Milan  and  Turin,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  were  woman's  rights  advocates  (under  the 
leadership  of  Dr.  med.  Paoline  Schiff  and  Emilia 
Mariani).  The  leadership  of  the  national  movement 
fell  to  the  more  active,  more  educated,  and  economically 
stronger  northern  Italy.  Here  also  the  movement  of 
the  workingwomen  had  progressed  to  the  ^stage  of 
organization,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the  Lom- 
bard women  workers  in  the  rice  fields. 

There  are  1,371,426  women  laborers  in  Italy.  Their 
condition  is  wretched.  In  agriculture,  as  well  as  in 
the  industries,  they  are  given  the  rough,  poorly  paid 
work  to  do.  They  are  exploited  to  the  extreme. 
Women  straw  plaiters  have  been  offered  20  centimes, 
even  as  little  as  10  centimes  (4  to  2  cents),  for  twelve 
hours'  work.  The  average  daily  wage  for  women  is 
80  centimes  to  i  franc  (16  to  20  cents).  The  maximum 
is  I  franc  50  centimes  (30  cents).  The  law  has  fixed 
the  maximum  working  day  for  women  at  twelve  hours, 
and  prohibits  women  under  twenty  years  of  age  from 
engaging  in  work  that  is  dangerous  and  injurious  to 
health.  There  are  maternity  funds  for  women  in 
confinement,  financial  aid  being  given  them  for  four 
weeks  after  the  birth  of  the  child.     Under  all  these 


204      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

circumstances  the  organization  of  women  is  exceedingly 
difficult.  Even  the  Socialists  have  neglected  the  organ- 
ization of  workingworaen. 

Socialist  propaganda  among  women  agricultural 
laborers  was  begun  in  1901,  In  Bologna,  in  the 
autumn  of  1902,  there  was  held  a  meeting  of  the 
representatives  of  800  agricultural  organizations  (hav- 
ing a  total  membership  of  150,000  men  and  women 
agricultural  laborers).  The  constitution  of  the  society 
is  characteristic;  many  of  its  clauses  are  primitive 
and  pathetic.  This  society  is  intended  to  be  an  edu- 
cational and  moral  organization.  Women  members 
are  exhorted  "to  live  rightly,  and  to  be  virtuous  and 
kind-hearted  mothers,  women,  and  daughters."  ^  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  task  of  the  women  will  be  made 
easier  through  the  efforts  of  the  society's  male  mem- 
bers to  make  themselves  virtuous  and  kind-hearted 
fathers,  husbands,  and  sons.  Or  are  moral  duties,  in 
this  case  also,  meant  only  for  woman? 

The  movement  favoring  the  abolition  of  the  official 
regulation  of  prostitution  was  introduced  into  Italy  by 
Mrs.  Butler.  A  congress  in  favor  of  aboHtion  was 
held  in  1898  in  Genoa.  Recently,  thanks  to  the 
efiforts  of  Dr.  Agnes  MacLaren  and  Miss  Buchner, 
the  movement  has  been  revived,  and  urged  upon  the 
Catholic   clergy.    The   Itahan   branch   of   the   Inter- 

1  Dokumente  der  Frauen,  June  i,  igoi. 


THE  ROMANCE  COUNTRIES         205 

national  Federation  for  the  Abolition  of  the  Official 
Regulation  of  Prostitution  was  founded  in  1908.  In 
the  same  year  was  held  in  Rome  the  successful  Con- 
gress of  the  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  This  Con- 
gress, representing  the  nobility,  the  middle  class,  and 
workingwomen,  brought  the  woman's  suffrage  question 
to  the  attention  of  the  pubhc.  A  number  of  woman's 
suffrage  societies  had  been  organized  previously,  in 
Rome  as  well  as  in  the  provinces.  They  formed  the 
National  Woman's  Suffrage  League,  which,  in  1906, 
joined  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance. 
Through  the  discussions  in  the  women's  clubs,  woman's 
suffrage  became  a  topic  of  public  interest.  The  Am- 
sterdam Report  [of  the  Congress  of  the  International 
Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance]  says :  "  The  women  of  the 
aristocracy  wish  to  vote  because  they  are  intelligent; 
they  feel  humiliated  because  their  coachman  or  chauffeur 
is  able  to  vote.  The  workingwomen  demand  the  right 
to  vote,  that  they  may  improve  their  conditions  of 
labor  and  be  able  to  support  their  children  better." 
A  parliamentary  commission  for  the  consideration  of 
woman's  suffrage  was  established  in  1908.  In  the 
meantime  the  existence  of  this  commission  enables  the 
President  of  the  Ministry  to  dispose  of  the  various 
proposed  measures  with  the  explanation  that  such 
matters  will  not  be  considered  until  the  commission  has 
expressed  itself  on  the  whole  question.    Women  have 


206      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

active  and  passive  suffrage  for  the  arbitration  courts 
for  labor  disputes. 

SPAIN  ^ 

Total  population :    18,813,493. 
Women:  9,558,896., 

Men:  9,272,597. 

No  federation  of  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

Whoever  has  traveled  in  Spain  knows  that  it  is  a 
country  still  living,  as  it  were,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, —  nay  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  fact  has  mani- 
fold consequences  for  woman.  In  all  cases  progress  is 
hindered.  Woman  is  under  the  yoke  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  of  a  Catholicism  generally  bigoted.  The 
Church  teaches  woman  that  she  is  regarded  as  the 
cause  of  carnal  desire  and  of  the  fall  of  man.  By  law, 
woman  is  under  the  guardianship  of  man.  Custom 
forbids  the  "respectable"  woman  to  walk  on  the 
street  without  a  man  escort.  The  Spanish  woman 
regards  herself  as  a  person  of  the  second  order,  a 
necessary  adjunct  to  man.  Such  a  fundamental 
hmniliation  and  subordination  is  opposed  to  human 
nature.  As  the  Spanish  woman  has  no  power  of  open 
opposition,  she  resorts  to  cunning.     By  instinct  she  is 

>  See  Stanton,  The  Woman's  Rights  Movement  in  Europe. 


THE  ROMANCE  COUNTRIES        207 

conscious  of  the  power  of  her  sex;  this  she  uses  and 
abuses.  A  woman's  rights  advocate  is  filled  with 
horror,  quite  as  much  as  with  pity,  when  she  sees  this 
mixture  of  bigotry,  coquetry,  submissiveness,  cunning, 
and  hate  that  is  engendered  in  woman  by  such  tyranny 
and  lack  of  progress. 

The  Spanish  woman  of  the  lower  classes  receives  no 
training  for  any  special  calling;  she  is  a  mediocre 
laborer.  She  acts  as  beast  of  burden,  carries  heavy 
burdens  on  her  shoulders,  carries  water,  tills  the  fields, 
and  spUts  wood.  She  is  employed  as  an  industrial 
laborer  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars  and  lace. 
"The  wages  of  women,"  says  Professor  Posada,^  "are 
incredibly  low,"  being  but  lo  cents  a  day.  As  tailors, 
women  make  a  scanty  living,  for  many  of  the  Spanish 
women  do  their  own  tailoring.  The  mantilla  makes 
the  work  of  milliners  in  general  superfluous.  In  com- 
mercial caUings  women  are  still  novices.  Recently 
there  has  been  talk  of  beginning  the  organization  of 
women  into  trade-unions. 

Women  are  employed  in  large  numbers  as  teachers; 
teaching  being  their  sole  non-domestic  calling.  Ele- 
mentary instruction  has  been  obligatory  since  1870, 
however,  only  in  theory.  In  1889  28  per  cent  of  the 
women  were  ilUterate.  In  many  cases  the  girls  of 
the  lower  classes  do  not  attend  school  at  all.     When 

'  El  Feminismo,  i8gg. 


208      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

they  do  attend,  they  learn  very  Httle;  for  owing  to 
the  lack  of  seminaries  the  training  of  women  teachers 
is  generally  quite  inadequate.  A  reform  of  the  central 
seminary  of  women  teachers,  in  Madrid,  took  place  in 
1884 ;  this  reform  was  also  a  model  for  the  seminaries 
in  the  provinces.  The  secondary  schools  for  girls  are 
convent  schools.  In  France  there  are  complaints  that 
these  schools  are  inadequate.  What,  then,  can  be 
expected  of  the  Spanish  schools !  The  curriculum  in- 
cludes only  French,  singing,  dancing,  drawing,  and 
needlework.  But  the  "Society  for  Female  Education" 
is  striving  to  secure  a  reform  of  the  education  for  girls. 

Preparation  for  entrance  to  the  university  must  be 
secured  privately.  The  number  of  women  seeking 
entrance  to  universities  is  small.  Most  of  them,  so 
far  as  I  know,  are  medical  students.  However,  the 
Spanish  women  have  a  brilliant  past  in  the  field  of 
higher  education.  Donna  Galinda  was  the  Latin  pro- 
fessor of  Queen  Isabella.  Isabella  Losa  and  Sigea 
Aloisia  of  Toledo  were  renowned  for  their  knowledge 
of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew;  Sigea  Aloisia  corre- 
sponded with  the  Pope  in  Arabic  and  Syriac.  Isabel 
de  Rosores  even  preached  in  the  Cathedral  of  Barcelona. 

In  the  hterature  of  the  present  time  Spanish  women 
are  renowned.  Of  first  rank  is  EmiUa  Pardo  Bazan, 
who  is  called  the  "Spanish  Zola."  She  is  a  countess 
and  an  only  daughter,  two  circumstances  that  facili- 


THE  ROMANCE  COUNTRIES        209 

tated  her  emancipation  and,  together  with  her  talent, 
assured  her  success.  She  characterizes  herself  as  "a 
mixture  of  mysticism  and  UberaHsm."  At  the  age  of 
seven  she  wrote  her  first  verses.  Her  best  book 
portrayed  a  "liberal  monk,"  Father  Feque.  Pascual 
Loper,  a  novel,  was  a  great  success.  She  then  went 
to  Paris  to  study  naturalism.  Here  she  became 
acquainted  with  Zola,  Goncourt,  Daudet,  and  others. 
A  study  of  Francis  of  Assisi  led  her  again  to  the 
study  of  mysticism.  In  her  recent  novels  hberaUsm  is 
mingled  with  idealism. 

Emilia  Pardo  Bazan  is  by  conviction  a  woman's 
rights  advocate.  In  the  Madrid  Atheneum  she  filled 
with  great  success  the  position  of  Professor  of  French 
Literature.  At  the  pedagogical  congress  in  Madrid,  in 
1899,  she  gave  a  report  on  Woman,  her  Education,  and 
her  Rights. 

In  Spain  there  are  a  number  of  well-known  women 
journalists,  authors,  and  poets.  Dr.  Posada  enumer- 
ates a  number  of  woman's  rights  publications  on 
pages  200-202  of  his  book.  El  Feminismo. 

Concepcion  Arenal  was  a  prominent  Spanish  woman 
and  woman's  rights  advocate.  She  devoted  herself  to 
work  among  prisoners,  and  wrote  a  valuable  hand- 
book dealing  with  her  work.  She  felt  the  oppression 
of  her  sex  very  keenly.  Concerning  woman's  status, 
which  man  has  forced  upon  her,  Concepcion  Arenal 
p 


2IO      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

expressed  herself  as  follows:  "Man  despises  all  women 
that  do  not  belong  to  his  family;  he  oppresses  every 
woman  that  he  does  not  love  or  protect.  As  a  laborer, 
he  takes  from  her  the  best  paid  positions ;  as  a  thinker, 
he  forbids  the  mental  training  of  woman;  as  a  lover, 
he  can  be  faithless  to  her  without  being  punished  by 
law;  as  a  husband,  he  can  leave  her  without  being 
guilty  before  the  law." 

The  wife  is  legally  under  the  guardianship  of  her 
husband;  she  has  no  authority  over  her  children. 
The  property  laws  provide  for  joint  property  holding. 

In  spite  of  these  conditions  Concepcion  Arenal  did 
not  give  up  all  hope.  "Women,"  said  she,  "are  begin- 
ning to  take  interest  in  education,  and  have  organized 
a  society  for  the  higher  education  of  girls."  The 
pedagogical  congresses  in  Madrid  (1882  and  1889) 
promoted  the  intellectual  emancipation  of  women. 
Catalina  d'Alcala,  delegate  to  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Women  in  Chicago  in  1893,  closed  her  report 
with  the  words,  "We  are  emerging  from  the  period  of 
darkness."  However,  he  who  has  wandered  through 
Spanish  cathedrals  knows  that  this  darkness  is  still 
very  dense  !  Nevertheless,  the  woman's  sujffrage  move- 
ment has  begun :  the  women  laborers  are  agitating 
in  favor  of  a  new  law  of  association.  A  number  of 
women  teachers  and  women  authors  have  petitioned 
for  the  right  to  vote.    In  March,   1908,  during  the 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  211 

discussion  of  a  new  law  concerning  municipal  adminis- 
tration, an  amendment  in  favor  of  woman's  suffrage 
was  introduced,  but  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  65  to  35. 
The  Senate  is  said  to  be  more  favorable  to  woman's 
suffrage  than  is  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

The  fact  that  women  of  the  aristocracy  have  op- 
posed divorce,  and  that  women  of  all  classes  have 
opposed  the  enactment  of  laws  restricting  religious 
orders,  is  made  to  operate  against  the  poUtical  eman- 
cipation of  women.  A  deputy  in  the  Cortez,  Senor 
Pi  y  Arsuaga,  who  introduced  the  measure  in  favor  of 
the  right  of  women  taxpayers  to  vote  in  municipal 
elections,  argued  that  the  suffrage  of  a  woman  who  is 
the  head  of  a  family  seems  more  reasonable  to  him 
than  the  suffrage  of  a  young  man,  twenty-five  years  old, 
who  represents  no  corresponding  interests. 

PORTUGAL 

Total  population :  5,672,237, 
Women :  2,583,535. 

Men:  2,520,602. 

No  federation  of  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suflrage  league. 

Portugal  is  smaller  than  Spain ;  its  finances  are  in 
better  condition ;  therefore  the  compulsory  education 
law  (introduced  in  1896)  is  better  enforced.     As  yet 


212      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

there  are  no  public  high  schools  for  girls ;  but  there 
are  a  number  of  private  schools  that  prepare  girls  for 
the  university  entrance  examinations  {Abiturientenexa- 
men).  The  universities  admit  women.  Women  doc- 
tors practice  in  the  larger  cities.  The  women  laborers 
are  ehgaged  chiefly  in  the  textile  industry ;  their  wages 
are  about  two  thirds  of  those  of  the  men. 

THE     LATIN-AMERICAN      REPUBLICS     OF    CENTRAL    AND 
SOUTH   AMERICA 

MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA  ^ 

The  condition  prevailing  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America  is  one  of  patriarchal  family  life,  the  husband 
being  the  "master"  of  the  wife.  There  are  large  fam- 
ilies of  ten  or  twelve  children.  The  life  of  most  of  the 
women  without  property  consists  of  "endless  routine 
and  domestic  tyranny"  ;  the  hfe  of  the  property-owning 
women  is  one  of  frivolous  coquetry  and  indolence. 
There  is  no  higher  education  for  women ;  there  are  no 
high  ideals.  The  education  of  girls  is  generally  re- 
garded as  unnecessary. 

There  are  public  elementary  schools  for  girls,  —  with 
women  teachers.  The  higher  education  of  girls  is 
carried  on  by  convent  schools,  and  comprises  domestic 

*  See  the  Report  of  the  International  Suffrage  Congress,  Washington, 
1902. 


THE   ROMANCE   COUNTRIES  213 

science,  sewing,  dancing,  and  singing.  In  the  Mexican 
public  high  schools  for  girls,  modem  subjects  and  lit- 
erature are  taught;  the  work  is  chiefly  memorizing. 
Technical  schools  for  girls  are  unknown.  Women 
do  not  attend  the  universities.  Women  teachers  in 
Mexico  are  paid  good  salaries,  —  250  francs  ($50)  a 
month. 

Women  are  engaged  in  commerce  only  in  their  own 
business  estabUshments ;  and  then  in  small  retail 
businesses.  The  rest  of  the  workingwomen  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture,  domestic  service,  washing,  and 
sewing.  Their  wages  are  from  40  to  50  per  cent  lower 
than  those  of  men.  The  legal  status  of  women  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  French  women.  In  Mexico  only 
does  the  wife  control  her  earnings.  Divorce  is  not 
recognized  by  law,  though  separation  is.  By  means 
of  foreign  teachers  the  initiative  of  the  people  has  been 
slightly  aroused.  It  will  take  long  for  this  stimulus 
to  reach  the  majority  of  the  people. 

SOUTH  AMERICA  ^ 

In  South  America  there  are  the  same  "patriarchal" 
forms  of  family  life,  the  same  external  restrictions  for 
woman.  She  must  have  an  escort  on  the  streets,  even 
though  the  escort  be  only  a  small  boy. 

'  See  the  Report  of  the  International  Suffrage  Congress,  Washington, 
1902. 


214      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Just  as  in  Central  America,  the  occupations  of  the 
women  of  the  lower  and  middle  class  are  agriculture, 
domestic  service,  washing,  sewing,  and  retail  business. 
But  woman's  educational  opportunities  in  South  Amer- 
ica are  greater,  although  through  public  opinion  every- 
thing possible  is  done  to  prevent  women  from  desiring 
an  education  and  admission  to  a  liberal  calUng.  Ele- 
mentary education  is  compulsory  (often  in  coeduca- 
tional schools).  Secondary  education  is  in  the  hands  of 
convents.  In  Brazil,  ChiU,  Venezuela,  Argentine  Re- 
public, Paraguay,  and  Colombia,  the  universities  have 
been  opened  to  women.  As  yet  there  are  no  women 
preachers  or  lawyers,  although  several  women  have 
studied  law.  Women  practice  as  physicians,  obstetrics 
still  being  their  special  field. 

The  beginnings  of  a  woman's  rights  movement  exist 
in  Chili.  The  Chilean  women  learn  readily  and  will- 
ingly. They  have  proved  their  worth  in  business  and 
in  the  Uberal  callings.  They  have  competed  success- 
fully for  government  positions;  they  have  founded 
trade-unions  and  cooperative  societies;  many  women 
are  tramway  conductors,  etc.  In  all  the  South  Amer- 
ican repubUcs  women  have  distinguished  themselves 
as  poets  and  authors.  In  the  Argentine  RepubUc 
there  is  a  Federation  of  Woman's  Clubs,  which,  in  1901, 
joined  the  International  Coimcil  of  Women. 


CHAPTER   in 

THE   SLAVIC  AND  BALKAN  STATES 

In  the  Slavic  countries  there  is  a  lack  of  an  ancient, 
deeply  rooted  culture  like  that  of  western  Europe. 
Everywhere  the  oriental  viewpoint  has  had  its  effect 
on  the  status  of  woman.  In  general  the  standards  of 
life  are  low;  therefore,  the  wages  of  the  women  are 
especially  wretched.  Political  conditions  are  in  part 
very  unstable,  —  in  some  cases  wholly  antique.  All 
of  these  circumstances  greatly  impede  the  progress  of 
the  woman's  rights  movement. 

RUSSIA 

Total  population :  94,206,195. 
Women:  47,772,455. 

Men :  46,433,740. 

Federation  of  Russian  Women's  Clubs.^ 
National  Woman's  Suffrage  League. 

The  Russian  woman's  rights  movement  is  forced  by 
circumstances   to   concern  itself   chiefly   with   educa- 

'  This  has  just  been  organized. 

215 


2l6      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

tional  and  industrial  problems.  All  efiforts  beyond 
these  limits  are,  as  a  matter  of  course,  regarded  as 
revolutionary.  Such  efforts  are  a  part  of  the  forbidden 
"political  movement";  therefore  they  are  dangerous 
and  practically  hopeless.  Some  peculiarities  of  the 
Russian  woman's  rights  movement  are :  its  individual- 
ity, its  independence  of  the  momentary  tendencies  of 
the  government,  and  the  companionable  cooperation 
of  men  and  women.  All  three  characteristics  are  ac- 
counted for  by  the  absolute  government  that  prevails 
in  Russia,  in  spite  of  its  Duma. 

Under  this  regime  the  organization  of  societies  and 
the  holding  of  meetings  are  made  exceedingly  difficult, 
if  not  impossible.  Individual  initiative  therefore  works 
in  solitude ;  discussion  or  the  expression  of  opinions  is 
not  very  feasible.  When  individual  initiative  ceases, 
progress  usually  ceases  also.  Corporate  activity,  such 
as  educates  women  adherents,  did  not  exist  formerly 
in  Russia.  The  lack  of  united  action  wastes  much 
force,  time,  and  money.  Unconsciously  people  com- 
pete with  each  other.  Without  wishing  to  do  so,  people 
neglect  important  fields.  The  absolute  regime  regards 
all  striving  for  an  education  as  revolutionary.  The 
educational  institutions  for  women  are  wholly  in  the 
hands  of  the  government.  These  institutions  are  tol- 
erated; but  a  mere  frown  from  above  puts  an  end  to 
their  existence. 


THE    SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  217 

It  is  the  absolute  regime  that  makes  comrades  of  men 
and  women  struggling  for  emancipation.  The  oppres- 
sion endured  by  both  sexes  is  in  fact  the  same. 

The  government  has  not  always  been  an  enemy  of 
enlightenment,  as  it  is  to-day.  The  first  steps  of  the 
woman's  rights  movement  were  made  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  rulers.  Although  polygamy  did  not  exist 
in  Russia,  the  country  could  not  free  itself  from  certain 
oriental  influences.  Hence  the  women  of  the  property- 
owning  class  formerly  lived  in  the  harem  (called  terem). 
The  women  were  shut  off  from  the  world ;  they  had  no 
education,  often  no  rearing  whatever;  they  were  the 
victims  of  deadly  ennui,  ecstatic  piety,  lingering  diseases, 
and  drunkenness. 

With  a  strong  hand  Peter  the  Great  reformed  the 
condition  of  Russian  women.  The  terem  was  abolished ; 
the  Russian  woman  was  permitted  to  see  the  world. 
In  rough,  uncivilized  surroundings,  in  the  midst  of  a 
brutal,  sensuous  people,  woman's  release  was  not  in 
all  cases  a  gain  for  moraUty.  It  is  impossible  to  become 
a  woman  of  western  Europe  upon  demand. 

Catherine  II  saw  that  there  must  be  a  preparation 
for  this  emancipation.  She  created  the  Institute  de 
demoiselles  for  girls  of  the  upper  classes.  The  instruction, 
borrowed  from  France,  remained  superficial  enough; 
the  women  acquired  a  knowledge  of  French,  a  few  ac- 
complishments, polished  manners,  and  an  aristocratic 


2l8      THE   MODERN   WOMAN' S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

bearing.  For  all  that,  it  was  then  an  achievement  to 
educate  young  Russian  women  according  to  the  stand- 
ards of  western  Europe.  The  superficiality  of  the 
Institutka  was  recognized  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Alexander  II,  the  Tsarina,  and  her  aunt, 
Helene  Pavlovna,  favored  reforms.  The  emancipator 
of  the  serfs  could  also  liberate  women  from  their  in- 
tellectual bondage. 

Thus  with  the  protection  of  the  highest  power,  the 
first  public  lycevun  for  girls  was  estabhshed  in  1857 
in  Russia.  This  was  a  day  school  for  girls  of  all  classes. 
What  an  innovation  !  To-day  there  are  350  of  these 
lyceums,  having  over  10,000  women  students.  The 
curriculums  resemble  those  of  the  German  high  schools 
for  girls.  None  of  these  lyceums  (except  the  human- 
istic lyceum  for  girls  in  Moscow),  are  equivalent  to  the 
GermsLn  Gymnasiums  or  Real  gymnasiums,  nor  even  to  the 
Oberrealschulen  or  Rcalschulen.  This  explains  and  jus- 
tifies the  refusal  of  the  German  universities  to  regard 
the  leaving  certificates  of  the  Russian  lyceums  as  equiv- 
alent to  the  Ahiturienten  certificate  of  the  German 
schools.  The  compulsory  studies  in  the  girls'  lyceums 
are:  Russian,  French,  religion,  history,  geography, 
geometry,  algebra,  a  few  natural  sciences,  dancing,  and 
singing.  The  optional  studies  are  German,  English, 
Latin,  music,  and  sewing.  The  lyceums  of  the  large 
cities  make  foreign  languages  compulsory  alsoj    but 


THE   SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  219 

these  institutions  are  in  the  minority.  In  the  natural 
sciences  and  in  mathematics  "much  depends  on  the 
teacher."  A  Russian  woman  wishing  to  study  in  the 
imiversity  must  pass  an  entrance  examination  in  Latin. 

The  first  efforts  to  secure  the  higher  education  of 
women  were  made  by  a  number  of  professors  of  the 
University  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1861.  They  opened 
courses  for  the  instruction  of  adult  women  in  the  town 
hall.  Simultaneously  the  Minister  of  War  admitted 
a  number  of  women  to  the  St.  Petersburg  School  of 
Medicine,  this  school  being  under  his  control. 

However,  the  reaction  began  already  in  1862.  In- 
struction in  the  School  of  Medicine,  as  well  as  in  the 
town  hall,  was  discontinued.  Then  began  the  first 
exodus  of  Russian  women  students  to  Germany  and 
Switzerland.  But  in  St.  Petersburg,  in  1867,  there 
was  formed  a  society,  under  the  presidency  of  Mrs. 
Conradi,  to  secure  the  reopening  of  the  course  for 
adult  women.  The  society  appealed  to  the  first  con- 
gress of  Russian  naturalists  and  physicians.  This  con- 
gress sent  a  petition,  with  the  signatures  of  influential 
men,  to  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  In  two 
years  Mrs.  Conradi  was  informed  that  the  Minister 
would  grant  a  two-year  course  for  men  and  women  in 
Russian  literature  and  the  natural  sciences.  The  so- 
ciety accepted  what  was  offered.  It  was  Uttle  enough. 
Moreover,  the  society  had  to  defray  the  cost  of  instruc- 


220      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

tion ;  but  it  was  denied  the  right  to  give  examinations 
and  confer  degrees.  All  the  teachers,  however,  taught 
without  pay.  In  1885  the  society  erected  its  own 
building  in  which  to  give  its  courses.  The  instruction 
was  again  discontinued  in  1886.  Once  more  the  Rus- 
sian women  flocked  to  foreign  countries.  In  1889  the 
courses  were  again  opened  (Swiss  influence  on  Russian 
youth  was  feared).  The  number  of  those  enrolled  in 
the  courses  was  limited  to  600  (of  these  only  3  per  cent 
could  be  unorthodox,  i.e.  Jewish).  These  courses  are 
still  given  in  St.  Petersburg.  Recently  the  Council 
of  Ministers  empowered  the  Minister  of  PubHc  Instruc- 
tion to  forbid  women  to  attend  university  lectures; 
but  those  who  have  already  been  admitted,  and  find  it 
impossible  to  attend  other  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing for  girls,  have  been  allowed  to  complete  their  course 
in  the  university.  The  present  number  of  women 
hearers  in  Russian  universities  is  2130.  A  Russian 
woman  doctor  was  admitted  as  a  lecturer  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Moscow,  but  her  appointment  was  not  con- 
firmed by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  She 
appealed  thereupon  to  the  Senate,  declaring  that  the 
Russian  laws  nowhere  prohibited  women  from  acting 
as  teachers  in  the  universities;  moreover,  her  medical 
degree  gave  her  full  power  to  do  so.  The  decision  of 
the  Senate  is  still  pending.  ■■;»    '-'•  ' 

A  recent  law  opens  to  women  the  calling  of  architect 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  221 

and  of  engineer.  The  work  done  on  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railroad  by  the  woman  engineer  has  given  better  satis- 
faction than  any  of  the  other  work.  A  bill  providing 
for  the  admission  of  women  to  the  legal  profession  has 
been  introduced  but  has  not  yet  become  law. 

The  Russian  women  medical  students  shared  the 
vicissitudes  of  Russian  university  life  for  women.  After 
1862  they  studied  in  Switzerland,  where  Miss  Suslowa, 
in  1867,  was  the  first  woman  to  be  given  the  doctor's 
degree  in  Zurich.  However,  since  the  lack  of  doctors 
is  very  marked  on  the  vast  Russian  plains,  the  govern- 
ment in  1872  opened  special  courses  for  women  medical 
students  in  St,  Petersburg.  (In  another  institution 
courses  were  given  for  midwives  and  for  women  regi- 
mental surgeons.)  The  women  completing  the  courses 
in  St.  Petersburg  were  not  granted  the  doctor's  degree, 
however.  The  Russian  women  earned  the  doctor's 
degree  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War  (1877-1878) ;  for  ten 
years  after  this  war  women  graduates  of  the  St.  Peters- 
burg medical  courses  were  granted  degrees.  Then  these 
courses  were  closed  in  1887.  They  were  opened  again 
in  1898.  Under  these  difficult  circumstances  the  Rus- 
sian women  secured  their  higher  education.      ] 

In  the  elementary  schools,  for  every  1000  women 
inhabitants  there  are  only  13. i  women  public  school 
teachers.  Of  the  2,000,000  public  school  children,  only 
650,000  are  girls.     The  number  of  illiterates  in  Russia 


22  2      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

varies  from  70  to  80  per  cent.  The  elementary  school 
course  in  the  country  is  only  three  years  (ft  is  five  years 
in  the  cities). 

The  number  of  women  public  school  teachers  is 
27,000  (as  compared  with  40,000  men  teachers).  An 
attempt  has  been  made  by  the  women  village  school 
teachers  to  arouse  the  women  agricultural  laborers 
from  their  stupor.  Organization  of  women  laborers 
has  been  attempted  in  the  cities.  For  the  present 
the  task  seems  superhuman.^ 

When  graduating  from  the  lyceum  the  young  girl 
is  given  her  teaching  diploma,  which  permits  her  to 
teach  in  the  four  lower  classes  in  the  girls'  lyceums. 
Those  wishing  to  teach  in  the  higher  classes  must  take 
a  special  examination  in  a  imiversity.  The  higher 
classes  in  the  girls'  lyceums  are  taught  chiefly  by  men 
teachers.  When  a  Russian  woman  teacher  marries 
she  need  not  relinquish  her  position. 

In  Russia  the  women  doctors  have  a  vast  field  of 
work.  For  every  200,000  inhabitants  there  is  only  one 
doctor !    However,  in  St.  Petersburg  there  is  one  doc- 

1  The  following  statistics  are  significant :  Between  January  i  and  July 
1,  1908,  Russia  showed  an  increase  in  the  consumption  of  alcoholic  liquors. 
The  total  amount  of  spirits  consumed  was  40,887,509  vedros  (i  vedro  is 
3.25  gallons),  which  is  an  increase  of  600,185  vedros  over  the  amount  con- 
sumed during  the  same  months  of  the  preceding  year.  These  figures  cor- 
respond also  to  the  government's  income  from  its  monopoly  on  spirits; 
this  was  327,795,312  rubles  (a  ruble  is  worth  51.5  cents),  an  increase  of 
3i74S)836  rubles  over  the  same  months  of  the  preceding  year. 


THE   SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  223 

tor  for  every  10,000  inhabitants.  According  to  the 
most  recent  statistics  there  are  545  women  doctors  in 
Russia.  Of  these,  8  have  ceased  to  practice,  245  have 
cflScial  positions,  and  292  have  a  private  practice. 
Of  the  132  women  doctors  in  St.  Petersburg,  35  are  em- 
ployed in  hospitals,  14  in  the  sanitary  department  of 
the  city;  7  are  school  physicians,  5  are  assistants  in 
clinics  and  laboratories,  2  are  superintendents  of  ma- 
ternity hospitals,  2  have  charge  of  foundling  asylums, 
5  have  private  hospitals,  and  the  rest  engage  in  private 
practice.  Of  the  413  women  doctors  not  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, 173  have  ofl5cial  positions,  the  others  have  a  pri- 
vate practice. 

The  local  governments  (zemstvos)  have  appointed 
26  women  doctors  in  the  larger  cities,  21  in  the  smaller, 
and  55  in  the  rural  districts.  There  are  18  women  doc- 
tors employed  in  private  hospitals  on  country  estates, 

8  in  hospitals  for  Mohammedan  women,  16  in  schools, 

9  in  factories,  4  are  employed  by  railroads,  4  by  the 
Red  Cross  Society,  etc.  The  practice  of  the  woman 
doctor  in  the  country  is  naturally  the  most  difficult 
and  the  least  remunerative.  Therefore,  it  is  willingly 
given  over  to  the  women.  Thanks  to  individual  abil- 
ity, the  Russian  woman  doctor  is  highly  respected. 

There  are  400  women  druggists  in  Russia.  Their 
training  for  the  calling  is  received  by  practical  work 
(this  is  true  of  the  men  druggists  also).    According  to 


2  24      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  last  statistics  (1897),  there  were  126,016  women  en- 
gaged in  the  Uberal  professions.  There  are  a  number  of 
women  professors  in  the  state  universities. 

Women  engage  in  commercial  callings.  The  schools 
of  commerce  for  women  were  favored  by  Witte  in  his 
capacity  of  Minister  of  Finance.  They  have  since  been 
placed  imder  the  control  of  the  Minister  of  Instruction 
and  Religion.  This  will  restrict  the  freedom  of  in- 
struction. Instruction  in  agriculture  for  women  has 
not  yet  been  established.  Commerce  engages  299,403 
women;  agriculture  and  fisheries,  2,086,169. 

Women  have  been  appointed  as  factory  inspectors 
since  1900.  The  Ministry  of  Justice  and  the  Ministry 
of  Communication  employ  women  in  limited  numbers, 
without  entithng  them  to  pensions.  The  government 
of  the  province  of  Moscow  has  appointed  women  to 
municipal  offices,  and  has  appointed  them  as  fire  insur- 
ance agents.  The  zemstvo  of  Kiew  had  done  this  pre- 
viously; but  suddenly  it  discharged  them  from  the 
municipal  offices.  For  the  past  nine  years  an  institution 
founded  by  the  Princes  Liwin  has  trained  women  as 
managers  of  prisons.^ 

The  names  of  two  prominent  Russian  women  must  be 
mentioned :  Sonja  Kowalewska,  the  winner  of  a  contest 
in  mathematics,  and  Madame  Sklodowska-Ciuie,  the 

1  See  the  very  interesting  article  Frauenbewegung  {The  Woman's 
Rights  Movement),  by  Berta  Kes,  Moscow. 


THE   SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  225 

discoverer  of  radium.  Both  prove  that  women  can 
excel  in  scientific  work.  It  must  be  emphasized  that  the 
woman  student  in  Russia  must  often  struggle  against 
terrible  want.  Whoever  has  studied  in  Swiss,  German, 
or  French  universities  knows  the  Russian-Polish  stu- 
dents who  in  many  cases  must  get  along  for  the  whole 
year  with  a  couple  of  ten  ruble  bills  (about  ten  dollars). 
They  are  wonderfully  unassuming;  they  possess  inex- 
haustible enthusiasm. 

Many  Russian  women  begin  their  university  careers 
poorly  prepared.  To  unfortunate,  divorced,  widowed, 
or  destitute  women  the  "University"  appears  to  be  a 
golden  goal,  a  promised  land.  Of  the  privations  that 
these  women  endure  the  people  of  western  Europe  have 
no  conception.  In  Russia  the  facts  are  better  known. 
Wealthy  women  endow  all  educational  institutions  for 
girls  with  relief  funds  and  with  loan  and  stipend  funds. 
Restaurants  and  homes  for  university  women  have  been 
established.  The  "  Society  for  the  Support  of  Univer- 
sity Women"  in  Moscow  has  done  its  utmost  to  relieve 
the  misery  of  the  women  students.^ 

The  economic  misery  of  the  industrial  and  agricultural 
women  (who  are  almost  wholly  unorgani.':cd)  is  some- 
what worse  than  that  of  the  university  women.  The 
statements  concerning  women's  wages  in  Vienna  might 
give  some  idea  of  the  misery  of  the  Russian  women.    In 

1  See  Bcrta  Kes,  Fraucnbcwegung. 
Q 


226      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Bialystock,  which  has  the  best  socialistic  organization 
of  women,  the  women  textile  workers  earn  about  i8 
cents  a  day;  under  favorable  circumstances  $1.25  to 
$1.50  a  week.  A  skillful  woman  tobacco  worker  will 
earn  323^  cents  a  day.  The  average  daily  wages  for 
Russian  women  laborers  are  18  to  20  cents. 

Hence  it  is  not  astonishing  that  in  the  South  American 
houses  of  ill-fame  there  are  so  many  Russian  girls.  The 
agents  in  the  white  slave  trade  need  not  make  very 
extravagant  promises  of  "good  wages"  to  find  willing 
followers.^  A  workingwomen's  club  has  existed  since 
1897  in  St,  Petersburg.  There  are  982,098  women  en- 
gaged in  industry  and  mining;  1,673,605  in  domestic 
service  (there  being  1,586,450  men  domestic  servants). 
Of  the  women  domestic  servants  53,283  are  illiterate 
(of  the  men  only  2172  !).  In  1885  the  women  formed 
30  per  cent  of  the  laboring  population ;  in  1900  the 
number  had  increased  to  44  per  cent.  Of  the  total 
number  of  criminals  in  Russia  10  per  cent  are  women. 

The  legal  status  of  the  Russian  woman  is  favorable  in 
so  far  as  the  property  law  provides  for  property  rights. 
The  Russian  married  woman  controls  not  only  her  prop- 
erty, but  also  her  earnings  and  her  savings.  As  survival 
of  village  communism  and  the  feudal  system,  the  right 
to  vote  is  restricted  to  taxpayers  and  to  landowners. 

>  See  Documents  Concerning  Women  {Dokumente  der  Frauen),  April  15, 
1900. 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  227 

In  the  rural  districts  the  wife  votes  as  "head  of  the 
family, "  if  her  husband  is  absent  or  dead.  Then  she  is 
also  given  her  share  of  the  village  land.  She  votes  in 
person.  In  the  cities  the  women  that  own  houses  and 
pay  taxes  vote  by  proxy.  The  women  owners  of  large 
estates  (as  in  Austria)  vote  also  for  the  provincial  as- 
semblies. Although  constitutional  liberties  have  a 
precarious  existence  in  Russia,  they  have  now  and  then 
been  beneficial  to  women. 

With  great  efifort,  and  in  the  face  of  great  dangers, 
woman's  suffrage  societies  were  formed  in  various 
parts  of  the  Empire.  They  united  into  a  national 
Woman's  Suffrage  League.  The  brave  Russian  dele- 
gates were  present  in  Copenhagen  and  in  Amsterdam. 
They  belonged  to  all  ranks  of  society  and  were  adherents 
to  the  progressive  political  parties.  Since  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  first  Duma  (June  9,  1906)  the  work  of  the 
woman's  suffrage  advocates  has  been  made  very  diffi- 
cult; in  the  rural  districts  especially  all  initiative  has 
been  crippled.  In  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  the 
work  is  continued  by  organizations  having  about  1000 
members ;  10,000  pamphlets  have  been  distributed,  lec- 
tures have  been  held,  a  newspaper  has  been  established, 
and  a  committee  has  been  organized  which  maintains  a 
continuous  communication  with  the  Duma. 

The  best  established  center  of  the  Russian  woman's 
rights  movement  is  the  Woman's  Club  in  St.  Peters- 


228      THE   MODERN   WOMAN' S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

burg.  Through  the  tenacious  efforts  of  the  leading 
women  of  the  club,  —  Mrs.  v.  Philosophow,  (Mrs.) 
Dr.  med.  Schabanoff ,  and  others,  —  the  government 
granted  them,  in  the  latter  part  of  December,  1908, 
the  right  to  hold  the  first  national  congress  of  women. 
(The  stipulation  was  made  that  foreign  women  should 
not  participate,  and  that  a  federation  of  women's  clubs 
should  not  be  formed.)  The  discussions  concerned 
education,  labor  problems,  and  politics.  Publicity 
was  much  restricted;  police  surveillance  was  rigid; 
addresses  on  the  foreign  woman's  suffrage  movement 
were  prohibited.  Nevertheless,  this  progressive  dec- 
laration was  made :  Only  the  right  to  vote  can  secure 
for  the  Russian  women  a  thorough  education  and  the 
right  to  work.  Moreover,  the  Congress  favored :  better 
marriage  laws  (a  wife  cannot  secure  a  passport  without 
the  consent  of  her  husband),  the  abolition  of  the  ofl&cial 
regulation  of  prostitution,  the  abolition  of  the  death 
penalty,  the  struggle  against  drunkenness,  etc.  The 
Congress  was  opened  by  the  Lord  Mayor  of  St.  Peters- 
burg and  was  held  in  the  St.  Petersburg  town  hall. 
This  was  done  in  a  sense  of  obligation  to  the  women 
school  teachers  of  St.  Petersburg  and  to  those  women 
who  had  endeared  themselves  to  the  people  through  their 
activity  in  hospitals  and  asylums.  The  Lord  Mayor 
stated  that  these  activities  were  appreciated  by  the 
municipal  officers  and  by  all  municipal  institutions. 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  229 

Although  the  Congress  was  opened  with  praise  for 
the  women,  it  ended  with  an  intentional  insult  to  the 
highly  talented  and  deserving  leader,  Mrs.  v.  Philo- 
sophow.  Mr.  Purischkewitch,  the  reactionary  deputy 
of  the  Duma,  wrote  a  letter  in  which  he  expressed  his 
pleasure  at  the  adjournment  of  her  "congress  of  prosti- 
tutes" {Bordellkongress) .  Mrs.  v.  Philosophow  sur- 
rendered this  letter  and  another  to  the  courts,  which 
sentenced  the  offender  to  a  month's  imprisonment, 
against  which  he  appealed.  After  this  Congress  has 
worked  over  the  whole  field  of  the  woman's  rights  move- 
ment, a  special  congress  on  the  education  of  women  will 
be  held  in  the  autumn  of  1909.^ 

Since  the  Revolution  of  1905  the  women  of  the  prov- 
inces have  been  astir.  It  has  been  reported  that  the 
Mohammedan  women  of  the  Caucasus  are  discarding 
their  veils,  that  the  Russian  women  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts are  petitioning  for  greater  privileges,  etc.  An 
organized  woman's  rights  movement  has  originated  in 
the  Baltic  Provinces ;  its  organ  is  the  Baltic  Women's 
Review  (Baltische  Frauenrundschau) ,  the  publisher 
being  a  woman,  E.  Schiitze,  Riga. 

•  I  am  indebted  to  Mrs.  Eudokimoff,  of  St.  Petersburg,  for  an  English 
translation  of  the  resolutions,  the  address  of  the  Lord  Mayor,  and  the 
proceedings  against  the  deputy  of  the  Duma;  also  for  a  biography  of 
Mrs.  V.  Philosophow. 


230      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 
CZECHISH   BOHEMIA   AND   MORAVIA 

Total  population :  about  5,500,000. 
The  women  predominate  numerically. 

No  federation  of  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  woman's  rights  movement  is  strongly  supported 
among  the  Czechs.  Woman  is  the  best  apostle  of 
nationalism ;  the  educated  woman  is  the  most  valuable 
ally.  In  the  national  propaganda  woman  takes  her 
place  beside  the  man.  The  names  of  the  Czechish 
women  patriots  are  on  the  lips  of  everybody.  Had  the 
Liberals  of  German  Austria  known  equally  well  how  to 
inspire  their  women  with  liberalism  and  Germanism, 
their  cause  would  to-day  be  more  firmly  rooted. 

In  inexpensive  but  well-organized  boarding  schools 
the  Czechish  girls  (especially  country  girls,  the  daughters 
of  landowners  and  tenants)  are  being  educated  along 
national  lines.  An  institute  such  as  the  "Wesna"  ^  in 
Briinn  is  a  center  of  national  propaganda.  Prague,  like 
Briinn,  has  a  Czechish  Gymnasium  for  girls  as  well  as 
the  German  Gymnasium.  There  is  also  a  Czechish 
University  besides  the  German  University.  The  first 
woman  to  be  given  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 
at  the  Czechish  university  was  Fraulein  Babor. 

The  industrial  conditions  in  Czechish  Bohemia  and 

1  Springtime. 


THE   SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  23 1 

in  Moravia  differ  very  little  from  those  in  Galicia.  The 
lot  of  the  workingwomen,  especially  in  the  coal  mining 
districts,  is  wretched.  According  to  a  local  club  doctor 
(Kassenarzt),^  life  is  made  up  of  hunger,  whiskey,  and 
lashes. 

Although  paragraph  30  of  the  Austrian  law  of  asso- 
ciation iVereinsgesetz)  prevents  the  Czechish  women 
from  forming  political  associations,  the  women  of  Bo- 
hemia, especially  of  Prague,  show  the  most  active  politi- 
cal interest.  The  women  owners  of  large  estates  in  Bo- 
hemia voted  until  1906  for  members  of  the  imperial 
Parliament.  When  universal  suffrage  was  granted  to 
the  Austrian  men,  the  voting  rights  of  this  privileged 
minority  were  withdrawn.  The  government's  resolu- 
tion, providing  for  an  early  introduction  of  a  woman's 
suffrage  measure,  has  not  yet  been  carried  out. 

The  suffrage  conditions  for  the  Bohemian  Landtag 
(provincial  legislature)  are  different.  Taxpayers,  office- 
holders, doctors,  and  teachers  vote  for  this  body;  the 
women,  of  course,  voting  by  proxy.  The  same  is  true 
in  the  Bohemian  municipal  elections.  In  Prague  only 
are  the  women  deprived  of  the  suffrage.  The  Prague 
woman's  suffrage  committee,  organized  in  1905,  has 
proved  irrefutably  that  the  women  in  Prague  are  legally 
entitled  to  the  suffrage  for  the  Bohemian  Landtag.  In 
the  Landtag  election  of  1907  the  women  presented  a 

'  A  doctor  employed  by  a  workingmen's  association.     [Tr.) 


232      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

candidate,  Miss  Tumova,  who  received  a  considerable 
number  of  votes,  but  was  defeated  by  the  most  promi- 
nent candidate  (the  mayor).  However,  this  campaign 
aroused  an  active  interest  in  woman's  suffrage.  In 
1909  Miss  Tumova  was  again  a  candidate.  The  pro- 
posed reform  of  the  election  laws  for  the  Bohemian 
Landtag  (1908)  (which  provides  for  universal  suffrage, 
although  not  equal  suffrage)  would  disfranchise  the 
women  outside  Prague.  The  women  are  opposing  the 
law  by  indignation  meetings  and  deputations. 


GALICIA 


Total  population :  about  7,000,000. 
Poles :  about  3,500,000. 

Ruthenians:  about  3,500,000. 

The  women  predominate  numerically. 

No  federation  of  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  conditions  prevailing  in  Galicia  are  unspeakably 
pathetic,  —  medieval,  oriental,  and  atrocious.  Who- 
ever has  read  Emil  Franzo's  works  is  famiUar  with  these 
conditions.  The  Vienna  official  inqioiry  into  the  indus- 
trial conditions  of  women  led  to  a  similar  inquiry  in  Lem- 
berg.     This  showed  that  most  of  the  women  cannot 

1  Dr.  Schirmacher  treats  Russian  Poland  here  with  Galicia,  which  is 
Austrian  Poland.     [Tr.] 


THE   SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  233 

live  on  their  earnings.  The  lowest  wages  are  those  of 
the  women  engaged  in  the  ready-made  clothing  indus- 
try, —  2  to  23/^  guldens  ($.96  to  $1.10)  a  month  as  be- 
ginners; 8  to  10  guldens  ($3.85  to  $4.82)  later.  The 
wages  (including  board  and  room)  of  servant  girls  living 
with  their  employers  are  20  to  25  cents  a  day.  The 
skilled  seamstress  that  sews  linen  garments  can  earn 
40  cents  a  day  if  she  works  sixteen  hours. 

As  a  beginner,  a  milliner  earns  2  to  4  guldens  ($.96  to 
$1.93)  a  month,  later  10  guldens  ($4.82).  In  the  mitten 
industry  (a  home  industry)  a  week's  hard  work  brings 
6  to  8  guldens  ($2.89  to  $3.88).  In  laundries  women 
working  14  hours  earn  80  kreuzer  (30  cents)  a  day  with- 
out board.  In  printing  works  and  in  bookbinderies 
women  are  employed  as  assistants ;  for  9}^  hours'  work 
a  day  they  are  paid  a  monthly  wage  of  from  2  to  14  and 
15  guldens  ($.96  to  $7.23).  In  the  bookbinderies 
women  sometimes  receive  16  guldens  ($7.71)  a  month. 

In  Lemberg,  as  in  Vienna,  women  are  employed  as 
brickmakers  and  as  bricklayers'  assistants,  working  10 
to  II  hours  a  day ;  their  wages  are  40  to  60  kreuzer  (19 
to  29  cents)  a  day.  No  attempt  to  improve  these  con- 
ditions through  organizations  has  yet  been  made. 
The  official  inquiry  thus  far  has  confined  itself  to  the 
Christian  women  laborers.  What  miseries  might  not 
be  concealed  in  the  ghettos  ! 

An  industrial  women's  movement  in  Galicia  is  not  to 


234      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

be  thought  of  as  yet.  There  is  a  migration  of  the 
women  from  the  flat  rural  districts  to  the  cities ;  i.e.  into 
the  nets  of  the  white  slave  agents.  Women  earning  lo, 
15,  or  20  cents  a  day  are  easily  lured  by  promises  of 
higher  wages.  The  ignorance  of  the  lower  classes 
(Ruthenians  and  Poles)  is,  according  to  the  ideas  of 
western  Europe,  immeasurable.  In  1897  336,000 
children  between  six  and  twelve  years  (in  a  total  of 
about  923,000)  had  never  attended  school.  Of  4164  men 
teachers,  139  had  no  qualifications  whatever !  Of  the 
4159  women  teachers  974  had  no  qualifications!  The 
minimum  salary  is  500  kronen  ($101.50).  The  women 
teachers  in  1909  demanded  that  they  be  regarded  on  an 
equality  with  the  men  teachers  by  the  provincial  school 
board.  There  are  Gymnasiums  for  girls  in  Cracow, 
Lemberg,  and  Przemysl.  Women  are  admitted  to  the 
universities  of  Cracow  and  Lemberg.  In  one  of  the 
imiversities  (Mrs.)  Dr.  Dazynska  is  a  lecturer  on  po- 
litical economy.  In  Cracow  there  is  a  woman's  club. 
Propaganda  is  being  organized  throughout  the  land. 

A  society  to  oppose  the  ofiicial  regulation  of  prosti- 
tution and  to  improve  moral  conditions  was  organized 
in  1 908.  The  Galician  woman  taxpayer  votes  in  munici- 
pal affairs ;  the  women  owners  of  large  estates  vote  for 
members  of  the  Landtag.  (Mrs.)  Dr.  Dazynska  and 
Mrs.  Kutschalska-Reinschmidt  of  Cracow  are  cham- 
pions of  the  woman's  rights   movement  in  Galicia. 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  23$ 

Mrs.  Kutschalska  lives  during  parts  of  the  year  in 
Warsaw.  She  publishes  the  magazine  Ster.  In  Rus- 
sian Poland  her  activities  are  more  restricted  because 
the  forming  of  organizations  is  made  difficult.  In  spite 
of  this  the  "  Equal  Rights  Society  of  Polish  Women  "  has 
organized  local  societies  in  Kaew,  Radom,  Lublin,  and 
other  cities.  The  formation  of  a  federation  of  Polish 
women's  clubs  has  been  planned.  In  Warsaw  the 
Polish  branch  of  the  International  Federation  for  the 
Abolition  of  Prostitution  was  organized  in  1907.  An 
asylum  for  women  teachers,  a  loan-fund  for  women 
teachers,  and  a  commission  for  industrial  women  are 
the  external  evidences  of  the  activities  of  the  Polish 
woman's  rights  movement  in  Warsaw. 

The  field  of  labor  for  the  educated  woman  is  especially 
limited  in  Poland.  Excluded  from  government  serv- 
ice, many  educated  Polish  women  flock  into  the  teach- 
ing profession ;  there  they  have  restricted  advantages. 
The  University  of  Warsaw  has  been  opened  to  women. 

THE   SLOVENE   WOMAn'S   RIGHTS    MOVEMENT* 

Total  population :     1,176,672. 

The  women  preponderate  numerically. 

The  Slovene  woman's  rights  movement  is  still  in- 
cipient; it  was  stimulated  by  Zofka  Kvedcr's  "The 

1  Dokumente  der  Frauen,  November,  15, 1901. 


236      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Mystery  of  Woman"  (Mysteriuni  der  Fran).  Zofka 
Kveder's  motto  is :  "To  see,  to  know,  to  understand.  — 
Woman  is  a  human  being."  Zofka  Kveder  hopes  to 
transform  the  magazine  Slovenka  into  a  woman's 
rights  review.  A  South  Slavic  Social-Democratic 
movement  is  attempting  to  organize  trade-unions  among 
the  women.  The  women  lace  makers  have  been  or- 
ganized. Seventy  per  cent  of  all  women  laborers  can- 
not live  on  their  earnings.  In  agricultural  work  they 
earn  70  hellers  (14  cents)  a  day.  In  the  ready-made 
clothing  industry  they  are  paid  30  hellers  (6  cents)  for 
making  36  buttonholes,  i  krone  20  hellers  (25  cents) 
for  making  one  dozen  shirts. 

SERVIA 

Total  population :  2,850,000. 

The  number  of  women  is  somewhat  greater  than  that 
of  the  men. 

Servian  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs. 

Servia  has  been  free  from  Turkish  control  hardly 
forty-five  years.  Among  the  people  the  oriental  con- 
ception of  woman  prevails  along  with  patriarchal  fam- 
ily conditions.  The  woman's  rights  movement  is  well 
organized ;  it  is  predominantly  national,  philanthropic, 
and  educational. 

Elementary  education  is  obligatory,  and  is  supported 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  237 

by  the  "National  Society  for  Public  Education" 
{Nationalen  Verein  jiir  V olksbildung) .  The  girls  and 
women  of  the  lower  classes  are  engaged  chiefly  with  do- 
mestic duties;  in  addition  they  work  in  the  fields  or 
work  at  excellent  home  industries.  These  home  in- 
dustries were  developed  as  a  means  of  hvelihood  by  the 
efforts  of  Mrs.  E.  Subotisch,  the  organizer  of  the  Ser- 
vian woman's  rights  movement.  The  Servian  women 
are  rarely  domestic  servants  (under  Turkish  rule  they 
were  not  permitted  to  serve  the  enemy) ;  most  of  the 
domestic  servants  are  Hungarians  and  Austrians. 

All  educational  opportunities  are  open  to  the  women 
of  the  middle  class.  In  all  of  the  more  important  cities 
there  are  public  as  well  as  private  high  schools  for  girls. 
The  boys'  Gymnasiums  admit  girls.  The  university  has 
been  open  to  women  for  twenty-one  years ;  women  are 
enrolled  in  all  departments ;  recently  law  has  attracted 
many.  For  medical  training  the  women,  Uke  the  men, 
go  to  foreign  countries  (France,  Switzerland). 

Servia  has  1020  women  teachers  in  the  elementary 
schools  (the  salary  being  720  to  2000  francs  —  $144  to 
$500  —  a  year,  with  lodging) ;  there  are  65  women 
teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  (the  salary  being  1500 
to  3000  francs,  —  $300  to  $600).  To  the  present  no 
woman  has  been  appointed  as  a  university  professor. 
There  are  six  women  doctors,  the  first  having  entered  the 
profession  30  years  ago ;  there  are  two  women  dentists ; 


238      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

but  as  yet  there  are  no  women  druggists.  There  are  no 
women  lawyers.  There  is  a  woman  engineer  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  government.  In  the  liberal  arts  there  are 
three  well-known  women  artists,  seven  women  authors, 
and  ten  women  poets. 

There  are  many  women  engaged  in  commercial  callings, 
as  office  clerks,  cashiers,  bookkeepers,  and  saleswomen. 
Women  are  also  employed  by  banks  and  insurance 
companies.  "A  woman  merchant  is  given  extensive 
credit,"  is  stated  in  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  the 
Federation. 

In  the  postal  and  telegraph  service  108  women  are 
employed  (the  salaries  varying  from  700  to  1260  francs, 
—  $140  to  $252).  There  are  127  women  in  the  tele- 
phone service  (the  salaries  varying  from  360  to  960 
francs,  —  $72  to  $192).  Servia  is  just  establishing  large 
factories ;  the  number  of  women  laborers  is  still  small ; 
1604  are  organized. 

Prostitution  is  ofl&cially  regulated  in  Servia;  its 
recruits  are  chiefly  foreign  women.  Each  vaudeville 
singer,  barmaid,  etc.,  is  ex  officio  placed  under  control. 

The  oldest  woman's  club  is  the  "Belgrade  Woman's 
Club,"  foimded  in  1875  ;  it  has  34  branches.  It  main- 
tains a  school  for  poor  girls,  a  school  for  weavers  in 
Pirot,  and  a  students'  kitchen  {studentenkiiche) .  The 
"Society  of  Servian  Sisters"  and  the  "Society  of  Queen 
Lubitza"  are  patriotic  societies  for  maintaining  and 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  239 

strengthening  the  Servian  element  in  Turkey,  Old  Ser- 
via,  and  Macedonia.  The  "Society  of  Mothers" 
takes  care  of  abandoned  children.  The  "Housekeep- 
ing Society"  trains  domestic  servants.  The  Servian 
women's  clubs  within  the  Kingdom  have  5000  mem- 
bers ;  in  the  Servian  colonies  without  the  Kingdom  they 
have  14,000  members. 

The  property  laws  provide  for  joint  property  holding. 
The  wife  controls  her  earnings  and  savings  only  when 
this  is  stipulated  in  the  marriage  contract. 

In  1909,  the  Federation  of  Servian  Women's  Clubs 
inserted  woman's  suffrage  in  its  programme,  and  joined 
the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance. 

In  the  struggle  for  national  existence  the  Servian 
woman  demonstrated  her  worth,  and  effected  a  recog- 
nition of  her  right  to  an  education. 

BULGARIA. 

Total  population :  4,035,586. 
Women:  1,978,457. 

Men:  2,057,111. 

Federation  of  Bulgarian  Women's  Clubs. 

Like  Servia,  Bulgaria  was  freed  from  Turkish  control 
about  forty  years  ago.  The  liberation  caused  very  little 
change  in  the  life  of  the  peasant  women.  But  it  opened 
new  educational  opportunities  for  the  middle  classes. 


240      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

The  elementary  schools  naturally  provide  for  the  girls 
also.  (In  1905-1906  there  were  1800  men  teachers  and 
800  women  teachers  in  the  villages;  in  the  cities  415 
men  and  355  women.)  High  schools  for  girls  have  been 
estabUshed,  but  not  all  of  them  prepare  for  the  Abi- 
turientenexamen.  The  first  women  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Sofia  in  1900.  There  are  now  about  icxs 
women  students.  Since  1907,  through  the  work  of 
a  reactionary  ministry,  the  university  has  excluded 
women ;  married  women  teachers  have  been  discharged. 
Women  attend  the  schools  of  commerce,  the  technical 
schools,  and  the  agricultural  schools.  Women  are 
active  as  doctors  (there  being  56),  midwives,  journaUsts, 
and  authors. 

The  men  and  women  teachers  are  organized  jointly. 
Women  are  employed  by  the  state  in  the  postal  and  tele- 
graph service.  The  wages  of  these  women,  like  those  of 
the  women  laborers,  are  lower  than  those  of  the  men. 
There  is  a  factory  law  that  protects  women  laborers  and 
children  working  in  the  factories.  The  trade-unions 
are  socialistic  and  have  men  and  women  members.  The 
laws  regulating  the  legal  status  of  woman  have  been  in- 
fluenced by  German  laws.  The  wife  controls  her  earn- 
ings.    PoUtically  the  Bulgarian  woman  has  no  rights. 

The  Federation  of  Bulgarian  Women's  Clubs  was 
organized  in  1899;  in  1908  it  joined  the  International 
Covmcil  of  Women.     Woman's  suffrage  occupies  the 


THE   SLAVIC   AND   BALKAN   STATES  24 1 

first  place  on  the  programme  of  the  Federation ;  in  1908 
it  joined  the  International  Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance. 

The  Bulgarian  women,  too,  have  recognized  woman's 
suffrage  as  the  key  to  all  other  woman's  rights.  To  the 
present  time  their  demands  have  been  supported  by 
radicals  and  democrats  (who  are  not  very  influential). 

A  meeting  of  the  Federation  in  1908  demanded : 

1.  Active  and  passive  suffrage  for  women  in  school 

administration  and  municipal  councils. 

2.  The    reopening     of    the    University    to  women. 

(This  has  been  granted.) 

3.  The  increase  of  the  salaries  of  women  teachers. 

(They  are  paid  10  per  cent  less  than  the  men 
teachers.) 

4.  The  same  curriculums  for  the  boys'  and  girls' 

schools. 

5.  An  enlargement  of  woman's  field  of  labor. 

6.  Better  protection  to  women  and  children  working 

in  factories. 
The  President  of  the  Federation  is  the  wife  of  the 
President  of  the  Ministry,  Malinoff.  Because  the  Fed- 
eration, led  by  Mrs.  Malinoff,  did  not  oppose  the  reac- 
tionary measures  of  the  Ministry  (of  Stambolavitch), 
Mrs.  Anna  Carima,  who  had  been  President  of  the 
Federation  to  1906,  organized  the  "League  of  Progres- 
sive Women."  This  League  demands  equal  rights  for 
the  sexes.     It  admits  only  confirmed  woman's  rights 

R 


242      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

advocates  (men  and  women).  It  will  request  the  po- 
litical emancipation  of  women  in  a  petition  which  it 
intends  to  present  to  the  National  Parliament,  which 
must  be  called  after  Bulgaria  has  been  converted  into  a 
kingdom.  In  July  (1909)  the  Progressive  League  will 
hold  a  meeting  to  draft  its  constitution. 

RUMANIA 

Total  population :  6,585,534. 

No  federation  of  women's  clubs. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  status  of  the  Rumanian  women  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Servian  and  Bulgarian  women ;  but  the  legal  pro- 
fession has  been  opened  to  the  Bulgarian  women.  A 
discussion  of  Rumania  must  be  omitted,  since  my  efforts 
to  secure  reliable  information  have  been  unsuccessful. 

GREECE  ^ 

Total  population :  2,433,806. 

Women :  1,1 66,990. 

Men:  1,266,816. 

Federation  of  Greek  Women. 
No  woman's  suffrage  league. 

The  Greek  woman's  rights  movement  concerns  itself 
for  the  time  being  with  philanthropy  and  education. 

1  Greek  conditions  are  analogous  to  conditions  prevailing  in  Slavic 
countries ;  hence  Greece  will  be  treated  here.  Greece  was  liberated  from 
Turkish  control  in  1827. 


THE   SLAVIC  AND   BALKAN   STATES  243 

Its  guiding  spirit  is  Madame  Kallirhoe  Parren  (who  acted 
as  delegate  in  Chicago  in  1893,  and  in  Paris  in  1900). 
Madame  Parren  succeeded  in  1896  in  organizing  a 
Federation  of  Greek  Women,  which  has  belonged  to  the 
International  Council  of  Women  since  1908.  The  presi- 
dency of  the  Federation  was  accepted  by  Queen  Olga. 
The  Federation  has  five  sections : 

1.  The  national  section.  This  acts  as  a  patriotic 
woman's  club.  In  1897  it  rendered  invaluable  assistance 
in  the  Turco-Greek  War,  erecting  four  hospitals  on  the 
border  and  one  in  Athens.  The  nurses  belonged  to  the 
best  families ;  the  work  was  superintended  by  Dr.  med. 
Marie  Kalapothaki  and  Dr.  med.  Bassiliades. 

2.  The  educational  section.  This  section  establishes 
kindergartens ;  it  has  opened  a  seminary  for  kindergart- 
ners,  and  courses  for  women  teachers  of  gymnastics.^ 

3.  The  section  for  the  establishment  of  domestic 
economy  schools  and  continuation  schools.  This  sec- 
tion is  attempting  to  enlarge  the  non-domestic  field  of 
women  and  at  the  same  time  to  prepare  women  better 
for  their  domestic  calling.  The  efforts  of  this  section 
are  quite  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  The 
Greek  woman's  struggle  for  existence  is  exceedingly 

'  There  are  elementary  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  The  secondary 
schools  for  girls  are  private.  The  first  of  these  was  founded  by  Dr.  Hill 
and  his  wife,  who  were  Americans.  Preparation  for  entrance  to  the  uni- 
versity is  optional  and  is  carried  on  privately.  Athens  University  has 
admitted  women  since  1891. 


244      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

difficult ;  she  must  face  a  backwardness  of  public  opin- 
ion such  as  was  overcome  in  northern  Europe  long  ago. 
This  section  has  also  founded  a  home  for  workingwomen. 

4.  The  hygiene  section.  Under  the  leadership  of  Dr. 
Kalapothaki  this  section  has  organized  an  orthopedic 
and  gynecological  clinic.  The  section  also  gives  courses 
on  the  care  of  children,  and  provides  for  the  care  of 
women  in  confinement. 

5.  The  philanthropic  section.  This  provides  respect- 
able but  needy  girls  with  trousseaus  (Austeuern). 

Mrs.  Parren  has  for  eighteen  years  been  editor  of 
a  woman's  magazine  in  Athens.  (Miss)  Dr.  mcd.  Pana- 
jotatu  has  since  1908  been  a  lecturer  in  bacteriology  at 
Athens  University.  At  her  inaugural  lecture  the  stu- 
dents made  a  hostile  demonstration.  Miss  Bassiliades 
acts  as  physician  in  the  women's  penitentiary.  Miss 
Lascaridis  and  Miss  lonidis  are  respected  artists ;  Mrs. 
v.  Kapnist  represents  woman  in  literature,  especially 
in  poetry.  Mrs.  Parren  has  written  several  dramatic 
works  (some  advocating  woman's  rights),  which  have 
been  presented  in  Athens,  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and 
Alexandria.  Mrs.  Parren  is  a  director  of  the  society  of 
dramatists. 

Government  positions  are  still  closed  to  women.  As 
late  as  1909,  after  great  difficulties,  the  first  women 
telephone  clerks  were  appointed. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ORIENT  AND  THE  FAR  EAST 

In  the  Orient  and  the  Far  East  woman  is  almost  with- 
out exception  a  plaything  or  a  beast  of  burden ;  and  to  a 
degree  that  would  incense  us  Europeans.  In  the  un- 
civilized coimtries,  and  in  the  countries  of  non-European 
civilization,  the  majority  of  the  women  are  insufficiently 
nourished ;  in  all  cases  more  poorly  than  the  men.  Early 
marriages  enervate  the  women.  They  are  old  at  thirty ; 
this  is  especially  true  of  the  lower  classes.  Among  us, 
to  be  sure,  such  cases  occur  also ;  unfortunately  with- 
out sufficient  censure  being  given  when  necessary.  But 
we  have  aboHshed  polygamy  and  the  harem.  Both 
still  exist  almost  undisturbed  in  the  Orient  and  the  Far 
East. 

TURKEY   AND   EGYPT 

Total  population :  34,000,000. 

A  federation  of  women's  clubs  has  just  been  founded  in  each 
country. 

In  all  the  Mohammedan  countries  the  wealthy  woman 
lives  in  the  harem  with  her  slaves.  The  woman  of  the 
lower  classes,  however,  is  guarded  or  restricted  no  more 

245 


246      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S    RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

than  with  us.  Apparently  the  Turkish  and  the  Arabian 
women  of  the  lower  classes  have  an  unrestrained  exist- 
ence. But  because  they  are  subject  to  the  absolute 
authority  of  their  husbands,  their  life  is  in  most  cases 
that  of  a  beast  of  burden.  They  work  hard  and  inces- 
santly. For  the  Mohammedan  of  the  lower  classes 
polygamy  is  economically  a  useful  institution :  four 
women  are  four  laborers  that  earn  more  than  they  con- 
sume. 

Domestic  service  offers  workingwomen  in  the  Orient 
the  broadest  field  of  labor.  The  women  slaves  in  the 
harems^  are  usually  well  treated,  and  they  have  suf- 
ficient to  live  on.  They  associate  with  women  shop- 
keepers, women  dancers,  midwives,  hairdressers,  mani- 
curists, pedicures,  etc.  These  are  in  the  pay  of  the  wives 
of  the  wealthy.  Thanks  to  this  army  of  spies,  a  Turk- 
ish woman  is  informed,  without  leaving  her  harem,  of 
every  step  of  her  husband. 

The  oppression  that  all  women  must  endure,  and  the 
general  fear  of  the  infidelity  of  husbands,  have  created 
among  oriental  women  an  esprit  de  corps  that  is  un- 
known to  European  women.  Among  the  upper  classes 
polygamy  is  being  abolished  because  the  country  is  im- 
poverished and  the  large  estates  have  been  squandered ; 
moreover,  each  wife  is  now  demanding  her  own  house- 
hold, whereas  formerly  the  wives  all  lived  together. 
1  The  English  have  abolished  slavery  in  Egypt. 


THE    ORIENT   AND   THE   FAR  EAST  247 

Through  the  influence  of  the  European  women  edu- 
cators, an  emancipation  movement  has  been  started 
among  the  younger  generation  of  women  in  Constan- 
tinople. Many  fathers,  often  through  vanity,  have 
given  their  daughters  a  European  education.  Ele- 
mentary schools,  secondary  schools,  and  technical 
schools  have  existed  in  Turkey  and  Egypt  since  1839. 
The  women  graduates  of  these  schools  are  now  oppos- 
ing oriental  marriage  and  life  in  the  harem.  At  present 
this  is  causing  tragic  conflicts.^ 

To  the  present,  two  Turkish  women  have  spoken 
publicly  at  international  congresses  of  women.  Selma 
Riza,  sister  of  the  "Young  Turkish"  General,  Ahmed 
Riza,  spoke  in  Paris  in  1900,  and  Mrs.  Hairie  Ben-Aid 
spoke  in  Berlin  in  1904. 

The  Mohammedan  women  have  a  legal  supporter  of 
their  demands  in  Kassim  Amin  Bey,  counselor  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals  in  Cairo.  In  his  pamphlet  on  the  wo- 
man's rights  question  he  proposes  the  following  pro- 
gramme :  — 

Legal  prohibition  of  polygamy. 

Woman's  right  to  file  a  divorce  suit.  (Hitherto  a 
woman  is  divorced  if  her  husband,  even  without 
cause,  says  three  times  consecutively :  "  You  are 
divorced.") 

'  See  Conseil  des  Femmes,  October,  1002,  for  the  romanlic  "DCscn- 
chant^es"  of  P.  Loti,  and  Hussein  Rachimi's  "  Vcrlicbtcr  Bey." 


248      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Woman's  freedom  to  choose  her  husband. 

The  training  of  women  in  independent  thought  and 
action. 

A  thorough  education  for  woman. 

In  1 9 10  a  congress  of  Mohammedan  women  will  be 
held  in  Cairo. 

I  may  add  that  the  Koran,  the  Mohammedan  code  of 
laws,  gives  a  married  woman  the  full  status  of  a  legal 
person  before  the  law,  and  full  civil  ability.  It  recog- 
nizes separation  of  property  as  legal,  and  grants  the 
wife  the  right  to  control  and  to  dispose  of  her  property. 
Hence  the  Koran  is  more  liberal  than  the  Code  Na- 
poleon or  the  German  Civil  Code.  Whether  the  re- 
strictions of  the  harem  make  the  exercise  of  these  rights 
impossible  in  practice,  I  am  unable  to  say. 

European  schools,  as  well  as  the  newly  founded 
Universites  popidaires,  are  in  Turkey  and  in  Egypt  the 
centers  of  enlightenment  among  the  Mohammedans. 
The  European  women  doctors  in  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, and  Cairo  are  all  disseminators  of  modem  cul- 
ture. A  woman  la-^yer  practices  in  the  Cairo  court, 
and  has  been  admitted  to  the  lawyers'  society. 

The  Young  Turk  movement  and  the  reform  of  Tur- 
key on  a  constitutional  basis  found  hearty  support 
among  the  women.  They  expressed  themselves  orally 
and  in  writing  in  favor  of  the  liberal  ideas ;  they  spoke 
in  public  and  held  pubhc  meetings ;  they  attempted  to 


THE    ORIENT   AND    THE   FAR    EAST  249 

appear  in  public  without  veils,  and  to  attend  the  theater 
in  order  to  see  a  patriotic  play ;  they  sent  a  delegation 
to  the  Young  Turk  committee  requesting  the  right  to 
occupy  the  spectators'  gallery  in  Parliament ;  and, 
finally,  they  organized  the  Women's  Progress  Society, 
which  comprises  women  of  all  nationalities  but  con- 
cerns itself  only  with  philanthropy  and  education.  As 
a  consequence,  the  government  is  said  to  have  resolved 
to  erect  a  humanistic  Gymnasium  for  girls  in  Constanti- 
nople. The  leader  of  the  Young  Turks,  the  present 
President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  is,  as  a  result  of 
his  long  stay  in  Paris,  naturally  convinced  of  the  superi- 
ority of  harem  life  and  legal  polygamy  (when  compared 
with  occidental  practices).^  The  freedom  of  action  of 
the  Mohammedan  women,  especially  in  the  provinces, 
might  be  much  hampered  by  traditional  obstacles. 
Nevertheless,  the  restrictions  placed  on  the  Moham- 
medan woman  have  been  abolished,  as  is  proved  by 
the  following :  — 

In  Constantinople  there  has  been  founded  a  "Young 
Turkish  Woman's  League  "  that  proposes  to  bring  about 
the  same  great  revolutionary  changes  in  the  intellectual 
life  of  woman  that  have  already  been  introduced  into 
the  political  life  of  man.  Knowledge  and  its  benefits 
must  in  the  future  be  made  accessible  to  the  Turkish 
women.  This  is  to  be  done  openly.  Formerly  all 
1  Compare  La  crisc  dc  Vorienl,  by  Ahmed  Riza. 


250      THE   MODERN   WOAIAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Strivings  of  the  Turkish  women  were  carried  on  in  secret. 
The  women  revolutionists  were  anxiously  guarded; 
as  far  as  possible,  information  concerning  their  move- 
ments was  secured  before  they  left  their  homes.  The 
Turkish  women  wish  to  prove  that  they,  as  well  as  the 
women  of  other  countries,  have  human  rights.  When 
the  constitution  of  the  "Young  Turkish  Woman's 
League"  was  being  drawn  up,  Enver  Bey  was  present. 
He  was  thoroughly  in  favor  of  the  demands  of  the  new 
woman's  rights  movement.  The  "Young  Turkish 
Woman's  League"  is  under  the  protection  of  Princess 
Refia  Sultana,  daughter  of  the  Sultan.  Princess  Refia, 
a  young  woman  of  twenty-one  years  of  age,  has  striven 
since  her  eighteenth  year  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the 
sciences.  She  speaks  several  languages.  The  enthu- 
siasm of  the  Young  Turkish  women  is  great.  Many  of 
them  appear  on  the  streets  without  veils,  —  a  thing 
that  no  prominent  Turkish  woman  could  do  formerly. 
Women  of  all  classes  have  joined  the  League.  The 
committee  daily  receives  requests  for  admisson  to 
membership. 

BOSNIA  AND  HERZEGOVINA 

Total  population:   1,591,036. 

The  men  preponderate  numerically. 

Bosnia  and  Herzego\ina,  being  Mohammedan  coun- 
tries, have  harems  and  the  restricted  views  of  harem 


THE  ORIENT  AND  THE  FAR  EAST     25 1 

life.  Naturally,  a  woman's  rights  movement  is  not 
to  be  thought  of.  Polygamy  and  patriarchal  life  are 
characteristic. 

Into  this  Mohammedan  country  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment has  sent  women  disseminators  of  the  culture  of 
western  Europe/  —  the  Bosnian  district  women  doc- 
tors. The  first  of  these  was  Dr.  Feodora  Krajevska 
in  Dolna  Tuszla,  now  in  Serajewo.  Now  she  has  sev- 
eral women  colleagues.  The  women  doctors  wear  uni- 
forms, —  a  black  coat,  a  black  overcoat  with  crimson 
facings  and  with  two  stars  on  the  collar. 

PERSIA 

Total  population :  about  9,500,000. 

In  Persia  hardly  a  beginning  of  the  woman's  rights 
movement  exists.  The  Report  ^  that  I  have  before  me 
closes  thus:  "The  Persian  woman  lives,  as  it  were,  a 
negative  life,  but  does  not  seem  to  strive  for  a  change  in 
her  condition."  Certainly  not.  Like  the  Turkish  and 
the  Arabian  woman,  she  is  bound  by  the  Koran.  Her 
educational  opportunities  are  even  less  (there  are  very 
few  European  schools,  governesses,  and  women  doc- 
tors in  Persia).  Her  field  of  activity  is  restricted  to 
agriculture,    domestic    service,    tailoring,    and    occa- 

'  Sec  the  analogous  action  of  the  English  in  India. 

*  Report  of  the  International  Suffrage  Congress,  Washington,  190a. 


252      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

sionally,  teaching.  However,  she  is  said  to  be  quite 
skillful  in  the  management  of  her  financial  affairs.  As 
far  as  I  know,  the  Persian  woman  took  no  part  in  the 
constitutional  struggle  of  1908-1909. 

INDIA 

Total  population :  300,000,000. 

The  Indian  woman's  rights  movement  originated 
through  the  efforts  of  the  English.  The  movement  is 
as  necessary  and  as  diflScult  as  the  movement  in  China. 
The  Indian  religions  teach  that  woman  should  be  de- 
spised. "A  cow  is  worth  more  than  a  thousand 
women."  The  birth  of  a  girl  is  a  misfortune:  "May 
the  tree  grow  in  the  forest,  but  may  no  daughter  be 
born  to  me."  ^ 

Formerly  it  was  permissible  to  drown  newborn  girls ; 
the  English  government  had  to  abolish  this  barbarity 
(as  it  abolished  the  suttee).  The  Indian  woman  Uves 
in  her  apartment,  the  zenana ;  here  the  mother-in-law 
wields  the  scepter  over  the  daughters-in-law,  the  grand- 
children, and  the  women  servants.  The  small  girl 
learns  to  cook  and  to  embroider;  anything  beyond 
that  is  iniquitous :  woman  has  no  brain.  The  girls 
that  are  educated  in  England  must  upon  their  return 

1  Mag  der  Baum  wohl  wachsen  in  dent  Walde, 
Aber  keine  Tochter  mir  geboren  werden. 


THE    ORIENT   AND   THE   FAR   EAST  253 

again  don  the  veil  and  adjust  themselves  to  native  con- 
ditions. At  the  age  of  five  or  six  the  little  girls  are  en- 
gaged, sometimes  to  young  men  of  ten  or  twelve  years, 
sometimes  to  men  of  forty  or  fifty.  The  marriage 
takes  place  several  years  later.  Sometimes  a  man  has 
more  than  one  wife.  The  wife  waits  on  her  husband 
while  he  is  eating;   she  eats  what  remains. 

If  the  wife  bears  a  son,  she  is  reinstated.  If  she  is 
widowed,  she  must  fast  and  constantly  oflfer  apologies 
for  existing.  The  widows  and  orphans  were  the  first 
natives  to  become  interested  in  the  higher  education  of 
women.  This  was  due  to  economic  and  social  condi- 
tions. 

India  was  the  cradle  of  mankind.  Even  the  highest 
civilizations  still  bear  indelible  marks  of  the  dreadful 
barbarities  that  have  just  been  mentioned.  The  Indian 
woman  has  rebelled  against  her  miserable  condition. 
The  English  women  considered  it  possible  to  bring 
health,  hope,  and  legal  aid  to  the  women  of  the  zenana, 
through  women  doctors,  women  missionaries,  and 
women  lawyers.  Hence  in  1866  zenana  missions  were 
organized  by  English  women  doctors  and  missionaries. 
Native  women  were  soon  studying  medicine  in  order 
to  bring  an  end  to  the  superstitions  of  the  zenana. 
Dr.  Clara  Swain  came  to  India  in  1869  as  the  first 
woman  medical  missionary.  As  early  as  i872-i<S73  the 
first  hospital  for  women  was  founded ;  in  1885,  through 


254      THE   MODERN   WOMAN  S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

the  work  of  Lady  Dufferin,  there  originated  the  Indian 
National  League  for  Giving  Medical  Aid  to  Women 
{N alio nalverb and  filr  drztliche  Frauenhilfe  in  Indien). 

Native  women  have  studied  law  in  order  to  repre- 
sent their  sex  in  the  courts.  Their  chief  motive  was  to 
secure  an  opportunity  of  conferring  with  the  women  in 
the  zenana,  a  privilege  not  granted  the  male  lawyer. 
The  first  Indian  woman  lawyer,  Cornelia  Sorabija, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Poona.  Even  in  England 
the  women  have  not  yet  been  granted  this  privilege. 
This  is  easily  explained.  The  Indian  women  cannot 
be  clients  of  men  lawyers ;  what  men  lawyers  cannot 
take,  they  generously  leave  to  the  women  lawyers. 

India  has  300,000,000  people;  hence  these  meager 
beginnings  of  a  woman's  rights  movement  are  infini- 
tesimal when  compared  with  the  vast  work  that  re- 
mains undone.'^  The  educated  Indian  woman  is  partici- 
pating in  the  nationalist  movement  that  is  now  being 
directed  against  English  rule.  Brahmanism  hinders 
the  Indian  woman  in  making  use  of  the  educational 
opportunities  offered  by  the  English  government. 
Brahmanism  and  its  priests  nourish  in  woman  a  feeling 
of  humility  and  the  fear  that  she  will  lose  her  caste 
through  contact  with  Europeans  and  infidels.    The 

1  India  still  retains  the  official  regulation  of  prostitution  (which  was 
abolished  in  England  in  1886).  Here  again,  miUtarism  is  playing  a  de- 
cisive part  in  blocking  this  reform. 


THE    ORIENT  AND   THE   FAR   EAST  255 

Parsee  women  and  the  Mohammedan  women  do  not 
have  this  fear.  The  Parsee  women  (Pundita  Ramabai, 
for  example)  have  played  a  leading  part  in  the  emancipa- 
tion of  their  sex  in  India.  But  the  Mohammedan 
women  of  India  are  reached  by  the  movement  only  with 
difficulty.  By  the  Hindoo  of  the  old  regime,  woman 
is  kept  in  great  ignorance  and  superstition ;  her  edu- 
cation is  limited  to  a  small  stock  of  aphorisms  and  rules 
of  etiquette ;  her  life  in  the  zenana  is  largely  one  of  idle- 
ness. "Ennui  almost  causes  them  to  lose  their  minds" 
is  a  statement  based  on  the  reports  of  missionaries. 

There  are  modern  schools  for  girls  in  all  large  cities 
(Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  etc.).  The  status  of  the 
native  woman  has  been  Europeanized  to  the  greatest 
extent  in  Bengal.  The  best  educated  of  the  native 
women  of  all  classes  are  the  dancing  girls  (bayaderes) ; 
unfortunately  they  are  not  "virtuous  women"  {hon- 
netes  femmes),  hence  education  among  women  has  been 
in  ill  repute. 

A  congress  of  women  was  held  in  Calcutta  in  1906 
with  a  woman  as  chairman;  this  congress  discussed 
the  condition  of  Indian  women.  At  the  medical  con- 
gress of  1909,  in  Bombay,  Hindoo  women  doctors 
spoke  effectively.  The  women  doctors  have  formed 
the  Association  of  Medical  Women  in  India.  In  Ma- 
dras there  is  published  the  Indian  Ladies^  Magazine} 

*  In  BariRkok,  in  Farther  India  (Siam),  there  is  a  woman's  dub  with 
the  Siamese  Princess  as  President. 


256      THE   MODERN   WOMAN 's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

CHINA  * 
Total  population :  426,000,000. 

The  Chinese  woman  of  the  lower  classes  has'the  same 
status  as  the  Mohammedan  woman,  —  ostensible  free- 
dom of  movement,  and  hard  work.  The  women  of  the 
property  owning  classes,  however,  must  remain  in  the 
house;  here,  entertaining  one  another,  they  live  and 
eat,  apart  from  the  men.  As  woman  is  not  considered 
in  the  Chinese  worship  of  ancestors,  her  birth  is  as  un- 
wished for  as  that  of  the  Indian  woman.  Among  the 
poor  the  birth  of  a  daughter  is  an  economic  misfortime. 
Who  will  provide  for  her  ?  Hence  in  the  three  most 
densely  populated  provinces  the  murder  of  girl  babies 
is  quite  common.  In  many  cases  mothers  kill  their 
little  girls  to  deliver  them  from  the  misery  of  later  life. 
The  father,  husband,  and  the  mother-in-law  are  the 
masters  of  the  Chinese  woman.  She  can  possess  prop- 
erty only  when  she  is  a  widow  (see  the  much  more 
liberal  provisions  of  the  Koran). 

The  earnings  of  the  Chinese  wife  belong  to  her  hus- 
band. But  in  case  of  a  dispute  in  this  matter,  no  court 
would  decide  in  the  husband's  favor,  for  he  is  supposed 
to  be  "the  bread  winner"  of  the  family.  Polygamy  is 
customary ;  but  the  Chinese  may  have  only  one  legiti- 

»  Report  of  the  International  Suffrage  Conference,  Washington,  1902. 


THE    ORIENT   AND   THE   FAR   EAST  257 

mate  wife  (while  the  'Mohammedan  may  have  four). 
The  concubine  has  the  status  of  a  hetaera;  she  travels 
with  the  man,  keeps  his  accounts,  etc.  The  Chinese 
woman  of  the  property  owning  class  lives,  in  contrast 
to  the  Hindoo  woman,  a  life  filled  with  domestic  duties. 
She  makes  all  the  clothes  for  the  family ;  even  the  most 
wealthy  women  embroider.  Frequently  the  wife  suc- 
ceeds in  becoming  the  adviser  of  the  husband.  A 
widow  is  not  despised ;  she  can  remarry.  The  women 
of  the  lower  classes  engage  in  agriculture,  domestic 
service,  the  retail  business,  all  kinds  of  agencies  and 
commission  businesses,  factory  work  (to  a  small  extent), 
medical  science  (practiced  in  a  purely  experimental 
way),  and  midwifery;  they  carry  burdens  and  assist  in 
the  loading  and  unloading  of  ships.  Women's  wages 
are  one  half  or  three  fourths  of  those  of  the  men. 

The  lives  of  the  Chinese  women,  especially  among 
the  lower  classes,  are  so  wretched  that  mothers  believe 
they  are  doing  a  good  deed  when  they  strangle  their 
little  girls,  or  place  them  on  the  doorstep  where  they 
will  be  gathered  up  by  the  wagon  that  collects  the 
corpses  of  children.  Many  married  women  commit 
suicide.  "The  suffering  of  the  women  in  this  dark 
land  is  indescribable,"  says  an  American  woman  mis- 
sionary. Those  Chinese  women  that  believe  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls  hope  "in  the  next  world  to  be 
anything  but  a  woman." 
s 


258      THE   MODERN   WOMAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

Foreign  women  doctors,  like  the  women  missionaries, 
are  bringing  a  little  cheer  into  these  sad  places.  Most 
of  these  women  are  English  or  American.  The  be- 
ginning of  a  real  woman's  rights  movement  is  the  work 
of  the  Anti-Foot-Binding  societies,  which  are  opposing 
the  binding  of  women's  feet.  This  reform  is  securing 
supporters  among  men  and  women. 

For  seventeen  years  there  has  existed  a  school  for 
Chinese  women.  This  was  founded  by  Kang  You  Wei, 
the  first  Chinese  to  demand  that  both  sexes  should 
have  the  same  rights.  The  women  that  have  devoted 
themselves  during  these  seventeen  years  to  the  emanci- 
pation of  their  sex  must  often  face  martyrdom.  Tsin 
King,  the  founder  of  a  semimonthly  magazine  for 
women,  and  of  a  modern  school  for  girls,  met  death  on 
the  scaflFold  in  1907  during  a  political  persecution 
directed  against  all  progressive  elements. 

Another  woman's  rights  advocate.  Miss  Sin  Peng 
Sie,  donated  200,000  taels  (a  tael  is  equivalent  to  72.9 
cents)  for  the  erection  of  a  Gymnasium  for  girls  in  her 
native  city,  100,000  taels  to  endow  a  pedagogical  maga- 
zine, and  50,000  taels  for  the  support  of  minor  schools 
for  girls.  Still  another  woman's  rights  advocate,  Wu 
Fang  Lan,  resisted  every  attempt  to  bind  her  feet 
in  the  traditional  manner.  There  exists  a  woman's 
league,  through  whose  efforts  the  government,  in 
1908,  prohibited  the  binding  of  the  feet  of  Uttle  girls. 


THE   ORIENT   AND   THE   FAR   EAST  259 

In  recent  years  the  women^s  magazines  have  increased 
in  number.  Four  large  publications,  devoted  solely 
to  women's  interests,  are  published  in  Canton;  five 
are  published  in  Shanghai,  and  about  as  many  in  every 
other  large  city.  The  new  system  of  education 
(adopted  in  1905)  grants  women  freedom.  Girls' 
schools  have  been  opened  everywhere;  in  the  large 
cities  there  are  girls'  secondary  schools  in  which  the 
Chinese  classics,  foreign  languages,  and  other  cultural 
subjects  are  taught.  In  Tien  Tsin  there  is  a  seminary 
for  women  teachers. 

Sie  Tou  Fa,  a  prominent  Chinese  administrative  offi- 
cial (who  is  also  a  governor  and  a  lawyer),  recently  de- 
livered a  lecture  in  Paris  on  the  status  of  the  Chinese 
woman.  This  lecture  contradicts  the  statements  made 
above.  Among  other  things  he  declared  that  China 
has  produced  too  many  distinguished  women  (in  the 
political  as  well  as  in  other  fields)  for  law  and  public 
opinion  to  restrict  the  freedom  of  woman.  "The  Chi- 
nese admits  superiority,  with  all  its  consequences,  as 
soon  as  he  sees  it ;  and  this,  whether  it  is  shown  by 
man  or  woman."  ^  According  to  him  there  can  be  no 
woman's  rights  movement  in  China,  because  man  does 
not  oppress  woman  !  He  declares  that  the  progress  of 
women  in  China  since  1905  is  a  manifestation  of  patri- 

•  "Le  Chinois  admct  la  suptrioriti,  avec  loutes  ses  consfquences,  dis 
qu'il  la  constate,  qu'elle  se  rtvUe  chez  un  homme  ou  chcz  une  femme." 


26o      THE   MODERN   WOAIAN'S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

otism,  not  of  feminism.  According  to  our  experiences 
the  opinions  of  Sie  Tou  Fa  are  attributable  to  a  pecul- 
iarly masculine  way  of  observing  things. 

JAPAN  AND  KOREA  ^ 

Total  population :  46,732,876. 
Women:  23,131,236. 

Men:  23,601,640. 

Previous  to  the  thirteenth  century  the  Japanese 
woman,  when  compared  with  the  other  women  of  the 
Far  East,  occupied  a  specially  favored  position,  —  as 
wife  and  mother,  as  scholar,  author,  and  counselor 
in  business  and  political  affairs.  All  these  rights  were 
lost  during  the  civil  wars  waged  in  the  period  between 
the  thirteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  War  and 
militarism  are  the  sworn  enemies  of  woman's  rights. 
A  further  cause  of  the  Japanese  woman's  loss  of  rights 
was  the  strong  influence  of  Chinese  civiHzation,  em- 
bodied in  the  teachings  of  Confucius. 

The  Japanese  woman  was  expected  to  be  obedient; 
her  virtues  became  passive  and  negative.  In  the  sea- 
ports and  chief  cities,  European  influence  has  during 
the  last  fifty  years  caused  changes  in  the  dress,  general 
bearing,  and  social  customs  of  the  Japanese.  During 
the  past  thirty  years  these  changes  have  been  furthered 

'  Report  of  the  International  Suffrage  Conference,  Washington,  1902. 


THE  ORIENT  AND  THE  FAR  EAST      261 

by  the  government.  While  Japan  was  rising  to  the 
rank  of  a  great  worid  power,  she  was  also  providing  an 
excellent  educational  system  for  women.  The  move- 
ment began  with  the  erection  of  girls'  schools.  The 
Empress  is  the  patroness  of  an  "Imperial  Educational 
Society,"  a  "Secondary  School  for  Girls,"  and  "Edu- 
cational Institute  for  the  Daughters  of  Nobles,"  and 
of  a  "Seminary  for  Women  Teachers."  All  of  these 
institutions  are  in  Tokio.  Women  formed  in  1S98 
13  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  teachers. 

Japanese  women  of  wealth  and  women  of  the  nobility 
support  these  educational  efforts ;  they  also  support  the 
"Charity  Bazaar  Society,"  the  Orphans'  Home,  and  the 
Red  Cross  Society.  The  Red  Cross  Society  trained 
an  excellent  corps  of  nurses,  as  the  Russo-Japanese 
War  demonstrated. 

Women  are  employed  as  government  oflScials  in  the 
railroad  oflSces;  they  are  also  employed  in  banks. 
Japanese  women  study  medicine,  pharmacy,  and  mid- 
wifery in  special  institutions,*  which  have  hundreds 
of  women  enrolled.  Many  women  attend  commercial 
and  technical  schools.  Women  are  engaged  in  industry, 
—  at  very  low  wages,  to  be  sure ;  but  this  fact  enables 
Japan  to  compete  successfully  for  markets.  The  num- 
ber of  women  in  industry  exceeds  that  of  the  men ;  in 

'  The  University  of  Tokio  is  still  closed  to  women.  Women  attend  the 
Woman's  University,  founded  in  1901  by  N.  Narusc. 


262      THE   MODERN   WOMAN' S   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

1900  there  were  181,692  women  and  100,962  men  in- 
dustrially engaged.  In  the  textile  industry  95  per  cent 
of  the  laborers  are  women.  Women  also  outnumber 
the  men  in  home  industries.  Women's  average  daily 
wages  are  12}^  cents.  Women  remain  active  in  com- 
merce and  industry,  for  the  workers  are  recruited  from 
the  lower  classes,  and  they  have  been  better  able  to 
\sathstand  Chinese  influence.  Chinese  law  (based  on 
the  teachings  of  Confucius)  still  prevails  with  all  its 
harshness  for  the  Japanese  woman. 

The  taxpaying  Japanese  becomes  a  voter  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five.  The  Japanese  woman  has  no  political 
rights.  Hence  a  petition  has  been  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment requesting  that  women  be  granted  the  right  to 
form  organizations  and  to  hold  meetings.  Parliament 
favored  the  measure.  But  the  government  is  still  hesitat- 
ing, hence  a  new  petition  has  been  sent  to  Parliament. 

The  modern  woman's  rights  movement  in  Japan  is 
supported  by  the  following  organizations:  two  so- 
cieties favoring  woman's  education,  the  associations 
for  hygiene,  and  the  society  favoring  dress  reform. 
The  Women's  Union  and  the  Leagtte  of  Women  can  be 
regarded  as  poUtical  organizations.  There  are  Japa- 
nese women  authors  and  journalists. 

Since  Korea  has  belonged  to  Japan,  changes  have 
begun  there  also.  The  Korean  women  have  neither 
a  first  name  nor  a  family  name.     According  to  drcum- 


THE    ORIENT   AND    THE    FAR   EAST  263 

stances  they  are  called  daughter  of  A.  B.,  wife  of  A., 
etc.  It  is  a  sign  of  the  time  and  also  of  the  awakening 
of  woman's  self-rehance  that  the  government  of  Korea 
has  been  presented  with  a  petition,  signed  by  many 
women,  requesting  that  these  conditions  be  abolished 
and  that  women  be  granted  the  right  to  have  their  own 
names. 

We  have  completed  our  journey  round  the  world,  — 
from  Japan  to  the  United  States  is  only  a  short  distance, 
and  the  intellectual  relations  between  the  two  countries 
are  quite  intimate.  Few  oriental  people  seem  more 
susceptible  to  European  culture  than  the  Japanese. 
But  whatever  woman's  rights  movement  there  is  in 
non-European  countries,  it  owes  its  origin  almost  with- 
out exception  to  the  activity  of  educated  occidentals,  — 
to  the  men  and  women  teachers,  educators,  doctors, 
and  missionaries.  Here  is  an  excellent  field  for  our 
activities ;  here  is  a  duty  that  we  dare  not  forget  in  the 
midst  of  our  own  struggles.  For  we  cannot  estimate 
the  noble  work  and  upHfting  power  that  the  world  loses 
in  those  countries  where  women  are  merely  playthings 
and  beasts  of  burden. 

CONCLUSION 

In  the  greater  part  of  the  world  woman  is  a  slave 
and  a  beast  of  burden.     In  these  countries  she  rules 


264      THE   MODERN   WOMAN's   RIGHTS   MOVEMENT 

only  in  exceptional  cases  —  and  then  through  cunning. 
Equality  of  rights  is  not  recognized ;  neither  is  the  right 
of  woman  to  act  on  her  own  responsibility.  Even  in 
most  countries  of  European  civilization  woman  is  not 
free  or  of  age.  In  these  countries,  too,  she  exists  merely 
as  a  sexual  being.  Woman  is  free  and  is  regarded  as  a 
human  being  only  in  a  very  small  part  of  the  civilized 
world.  Even  in  these  places  we  see  daily  tenacious 
survivals  of  the  old  barbarity  and  tyranny.  Hence  it 
is  not  true  that  woman  is  the  "weaker,"  the  "pro- 
tected," the  "loved,"  and  the  "revered"  sex.  In  most 
cases  she  is  the  overworked,  exploited,  and  (even  when 
living  in  luxury)  the  oppressed  sex.  These  circum- 
stances dwarf  woman's  himianity,  and  limit  the  de- 
velopment of  her  individuaUty,  her  freedom,  and  her 
responsibility.  These  conditions  are  opposed  by  the 
woman's  rights  movement.  The  movement  hopes 
to  secure  the  happiness  of  woman,  of  man,  of  the  child, 
and  of  the  world  by  establishing  the  equal  rights  of 
the  sexes.  These  rights  are  based  on  the  recognition 
of  equality  of  merit;  they  provide  for  responsibility 
of  action.  Most  men  do  not  vmderstand  this  ideal; 
they  oppose  it  with  unconscious  egotism. 

This  book  has  given  an  accurate  account  of  the  means 
by  which  men  oppose  woman's  rights:  scoffing, 
ridicule,  insinuation;  and  finally,  when  prejudice, 
stubbornness,  and  selfishness  can  no  longer  resist  the 


THE  ORIENT  AND  THE  FAR  EAST      265 

force  of  truth,  the  argument  that  they  do  not  wish 
to  grant  us  our  rights.  There  is  Uttle  encouragement 
in  this ;  but  it  shall  not  perplex  us.  Man,  by  opposing 
woman,  caused  the  struggle  between  the  sexes.  Only 
equaUty  of  rights  can  bring  peace.  Woman  is  already 
certain  of  her  equaUty.  Man  will  learn  by  experience 
that  renunciation  can  be  "manly,"  that  business  can 
be  "feminine,"  and  that  all  "privilege"  is  obnoxious. 
The  emancipation  of  woman  is  synonymous  with  the 
education  of  man. 

Educating  is  always  a  slow  process;  but  it  inspires 
limitless  hope.  When  "ideas"  have  once  seized  the 
masses,  these  ideas  become  an  irresistible  force.  This 
is  irrefutably  proved  by  the  strong  growth  of  our  move- 
ment since  1904  in  all  countries  of  European  civihza- 
tion,  and  by  the  awakening  of  women  even  in  the  depths 
of  oriental  civilization.  The  events  of  the  past  five 
years  justify  us  in  entertaining  great  hopes. 


INDEX 


Abbans,  Count  Jouffroy  d',  57. 
Aberdeen,  Lady,  xi,  note  i,  96. 
Actresses'  Franchise  League,  68. 
Adams,  Mr.  Alva,  22,  23. 
Adler,  167. 

Adlersparre,  Baroness  of,  106. 
Age  of  consent, 
in  woman's  suffrage  states  of  the 

United  States,  39. 
in  Australia,  53,  54. 
Agricultural        Association        for 

Women,  83. 
Agriculturists,  women, 
in  the  United  States,  36. 
in  Great  Britain,  82-84. 
in  Sweden,  108. 
in  France,  186. 
in  Italy,  203,  204. 
Alcala,  Catalina  d',  210. 
Alexander  II,  218. 
Alexandra  House,  82. 
Aloisia,  Sigea,  208. 
Amberly,  Lady,  62. 
American   Commission,    report   on 

European  prostitution,  37. 
American  Federation  of  Labor, 
favors  woman's  suffrage,  10. 
forms  organizations  of  working- 
women,  3s. 
American   Woman's   Suffrage   As- 
sociation, 12. 
American  women, 

activities   of,    at    Constitutional 

Convention  (1787),  2-4. 
means    of    agitation    used    by, 

IS,  16. 
and  political  life,  18. 
and  the  protection  of  youth,  18 
and  note  i. 


and  state  legislative  offices,  22, 

23  and  note  i. 
members  of  city  councils,  22. 
in  the  Colorado  legislature,  22, 

23  and  note  i. 
and  education,  23-27. 
excluded  by  certain  universities, 

24. 
and  the  teaching  profession,  25. 
students  in  higher  institutions  of 

learning,  26. 
suffrage  of,  in  school  affairs,  27. 
increase  of  women  students,  27. 
admitted    to   technical    schools, 

29. 
legal  status  cf,  36,  37. 
and  sports,  38,  39. 
Amsterdam,  xiii. 
Anckctill,  Mr.,  100. 
Ancketill,  Mrs.,  100. 
Anstie,  Dr.,  77. 
Anthony,  Susan  B., 
the   Napoleon   of   the   woman's 

suffrage  movement,  7. 
various  facts  concerning,  7,  8. 
joint    author    of    a    History    of 
Woman's  Suffrage,  23,  note  2. 
Anti-Foot-Binding  Societies,  258. 
.\nti-Slavcry  Congress,  5,  6. 
;\renal,  Conccpcion,  209,  210. 
Argentine  Republic,  214. 
,\rsuaga,  Pi  y,  ^  1 1  • 
Artists'    Suffrage    League,   68. 
Asquilh.  Mr.,  66. 

Association    Opposed   to  Woman's 
Suffrage  (in  the  United  Stales), 

23- 

Auclcrt,  Madame,  188. 
Augsburg,  Dr.  Anita,  151- 


267 


268 


INDEX 


Australia, 
member    of     the    International 
Woman's     Suffrage    Alliance, 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  42  and  ff. 

Australian  universities,  45,  46. 

Australian  Women's  Political  As- 
sociation, 54. 

Austria,  represented  in  The  In- 
ternational Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance,  xiii ;  see  also  German 
Austria. 

Austrian  Women  Teachers'  So- 
ciety, 159. 

Bajer,  123. 

Baltic  Women's  Revitw,  229. 

Bassiliades,  Dr.,  243,  244. 

Bayaderes,  255. 

Bazan,  Emilia  Pardo,  208,  209. 

Beauharnais,  Josephine,  178. 

Becker,  63. 

Belgium, 

represented  in  the  International 

Woman's     Suffrage    Alliance, 

xiii. 
conditions    in,    190,    191. 
Ben-.\id,  Mrs.  Hairie,  247. 
Beothy,  Dr.,  170. 
Beresford-Hope,  Mrs.,  71. 
Bey,  Kassim  Amin,  247. 
Bieber-Bohm,  Hanna,  151. 
Biggs,  63. 
Birmingham,  61. 
Bjornson,  no,  117,  123. 
Blackburn,  Helen,  59,  note  i. 
Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  28,  29. 
Blackwell,  Emily,  29. 
Blake,  Jex,  77. 
Boer  War,  64. 

Bohemia,  conditions  in,   230-232. 
Boise,  Idaho,  21. 
Bonald,  de,  180. 
Bonnevlal,  Madame,  188. 
Bosnia,  conditions  In,  250. 
Boston,  22,  27,  38. 
Brabanzon  House,  82. 


Brahmanism,  254. 

Brandes,  George,  123. 

Braun,  Lily,  152. 

Bremer,  Frederika,   103 ;    see   also 

Fredericka  Bremer  League. 
Bristol,  61. 

Briistlein,  Miss  Dr.,  136. 
Buchner,  Miss,  204. 
Bulgaria, 
represented  in  the  International 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 
xlli. 
conditions  In,  239-242. 
Butler,  Mrs.  Josephine,  95,  204. 

Cabinet,  British,  and  woman's  suf- 
frage, 65,  67. 

Cahiers  feministes,  193. 

California, 
woman's     suffrage    amendment 

adopted   by,   17,  note  i. 
efforts  of  women  of,  to  secure 
the  suffrage,  21. 

Cambridge  University,  75,  76. 

Canada, 
represented  In  the  International 
Woman's     Suffrage   Alliance, 
xill. 
woman's    rights    movement    in, 
96  and  ff. 

Carima,  Mrs.,  241. 

Carinthla,    see    Slovene   Woman's 
Rights  Movement. 

Camlola,    see    Slovene    Woman's 
Rights  Movement. 

Catharine  II,  217. 

Catholic  Woman's  League,  154. 

Catholic    Women    Teachers'    So- 
ciety, 159. 

Catt,  Mrs.  Carrie  Chapman,  xiii, 
42. 

Cauer,  Mrs.,  150,  151,  152. 

Cave,  Miss,  78. 

Central    America,    conditions    in, 
212,  213. 

Central   Committee  for  Woman's 
Suffrage  (England),  63. 


INDEX 


269 


Central    states    (of     the    United 

States),  35. 
Chauvin,  Jeanne,  185. 
Chicago,  40. 

Child  labor,  in  United  States,  35. 
Children, 

"Conference  on  the  Care  of 
Dependent  Children,"  18  and 
note  I. 

National  Child  Labor  Commit- 
tee, 35. 

laws  protecting,  in  Australia,  54. 

see  also  Laws  protecting  women 
and  children. 
Children,  authority  over, 

in  Colorado,  19,  20. 

in  thirty-eight  of  the  United 
States,  37. 

in  Australia,  49,  55. 

in  England,  74. 

in  Finland,  115. 

in  German  Austria,  169. 

in  Switzerland,  140. 

in  France,  179. 

in  Spain,  210. 
Chili,  214. 

China,  conditions  in,  256-260. 
Cincinnati,  30,  37. 
Clergy,  English,  6. 
Cleveland,  President,  15. 
Clough,  Anne,  75. 
Cobden,  Mrs.,  71. 
Code  Napoleon, 

absence  of,  in  Australia,  44. 

in  the  Netherlands,  126. 

in  France,  178,  179. 

in  Belgium,  191. 

in  Italy,  202. 
Coeducation, 

in  the  United  States,  24,  25. 

in  Australia,  45,  46. 

in  Scotland,  75. 

in  Sweden,  105. 

in  the  Netherlands,  127. 

in  Switzerland,  134,  135. 

in  Germany,  147. 

in  Italy,  200. 


College  Equal  Suffrage  League,  10. 

Collett,  Clara,  117. 

Colorado, 

woman's  suflFrage  in,  16. 
activities  and  rights  of  women  in, 

19,  20. 
vote  of  immoral  women  in,  18, 19. 
women  in  legislature  of,  22,  23 

and  note  i. 
conditions  of   women   and   chil- 
dren in,  39,  40. 
Columbia  University,  24. 
"Conference  on  the  Care  of  De- 
pendent   Children,"     18    and 
note  I. 
Confucius,  260. 
Conradi,  Mrs.,  219. 
Conservative         and         Unionist 
Women's    Franchise    Associa- 
tion, 68. 
Conwrt,  The  (novel),  67,  note  i. 
Coote,  Miss,  172. 
Copenhagen,  xiii. 
Court  of  Appeals,  71. 
Craigen,  63. 

Creighton,  Mrs.  Louise,  69. 
Curie,  Madame,  84,  224. 
Czaky,  172. 

Davies,  Emily,  75. 

Dazynska,  Dr.,  234. 

De  Stem  dtr  Vrouw,  194. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  Wom- 
an's, 6,  7,  II. 

"The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of 
Women,"  176. 

Dcllou,  Madame  Oddo,  182. 

Denison,  Mrs.  Macdonald,  98. 

Denmark, 

represented  in   the  International 
Woman's     Suffrage    Alliance 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  122-126. 

Dennis,  Mrs.,  192. 

Denver,  Colorado,  18,  19. 

Dcraismes,  Marie,  180. 

Deroin,  Jeanne,  180. 


270 


INDEX 


Derscheid-Delcour,  Mrs.,  193. 
Despard,  Mrs.,  68. 
Disraeli,  61. 
Divorce  laws, 

in  woman's  suffrage  states,  39. 

in  Australia,  49,  52,  55. 

in  England,  74. 

in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 

213- 

in  Turkey  and  Egypt,  247. 
Dobson,  Mrs.,  47. 
Doctors,  women, 

in  the  United  States,  28,  29. 

in  Australia,  46. 

in  Great  Britain,  77. 

in  Sweden,  104,  107. 

in  Finland,  in. 

in  Norway,  121. 

in   the   Netherlands,    128,    130, 

131- 

in  Switzerland,  136. 

in  Germany,  148. 

in  German  Austria,  160,  161. 

in  Hungary,  171. 

in  Belgium,  193. 

in  Italy,  201. 

in  Portugal,  212. 

in  Russia,  220,  221,  222,  223. 

in  Servia,  237. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 

in  Rumania,  242, 

in  Bosnia,  251. 

in  Persia,  251. 

in  India,  253. 
Dokumente  der  Frauen,  166. 
Donohue,  Mrs.  M.,  44. 
Do  You  Know?    (pamphlet),  42. 
Drummond,  Mrs.,  66. 
DuSerin,  Lady,  254. 
Durand,  Madame  Marguerite,  188. 

Ebner-Eschenbach,  Marie  v.,  169. 
Education,  women  and, 

in  the  United  States,  23-27,  39. 

in  Australia,  45,  46. 

in  Great  Britain,  74  and  S. 

in  Canada,  97. 


in  Sweden,  104,  106,  107. 

in  Finland,  in. 

in  Norway,  117-119. 

in  Denmark,  123. 

in  the  Netherlands,  127,  128. 

in  Switzerland,  134-136. 

in  Germany,  146-148. 

in  Luxemburg,  157,  158. 

in    German   Austria,    159,    160, 
161-163. 

in  Hungary,  169-171. 

in  France,  183,  i  4. 

in  Belgium,  191-193. 

in  Italy,  199-201. 

in  Spain,  207,  208. 

in  Portugal,  212. 

in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
212. 

in  South  America,  214. 

in  Russia,  217-222,  225. 

in   Czechish   Bohemia   and  Mo- 
ravia, 230. 

in  Servia,  236,  237. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 

in  Greece,  243. 

in  Turkey  and  Egypt,  247,  248. 

in  India,  255. 

in  China,  259. 

in  Japan,  261. 
Education  Act,  71. 
Egypt,  conditions  in,  245-250. 
El  Feminismo,  209. 
Elmy,    E.    C.    Wolstenholme,    70, 

notes  I  and  2. 
Encyclopedia  Brilannica,  60. 
England,    represented    in   the   In- 
ternational Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance,  xii ;  see  Great  Britain. 
English  Constitution,  72. 
Enrooth,  Adelaide,  no. 
Eudokimoff,  Mrs.,  229,  note  i. 

Factory  inspectors,  women, 
in  the  Netherlands,  128,  129. 
in  Switzerland,  137. 
in  Germany,  149. 
in  France,  185. 


INDEX 


271 


Factory  inspectors,  women, 
in  Italy,  201. 
in  Russia,  224. 
Far  East,  conditions  in  the,  245- 

265. 
Favre,  Miss  Nellie,  136. 
Fawcett,  63,  69. 

February  Revolution  (1848),   180. 
Federal  Child's  Bureau,  proposed 

in  the  United  States,  18  and 

note  I. 
Federation    of    French    Women's 

Clubs,  181,  183. 
Federation  of  Labor,  10. 
Fedem,  Elsie,  166. 
Feminisme  chrelien,  k,  187. 
"Feminist  Society,"  172. 
Fibiger,  Matilda,  122. 
Fickert,  Augusta,  166. 
Fifteenth  Amendment,  women  and 

the,  g. 
Finland, 
represented  in  the  International 

Woman's    Suffrage     Alliance, 

xiii. 
conditions  in,  110-116. 
Fontaine,  Mrs.,  192. 
Fourierists,  180. 
France, 
represented  in  the  International 

Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 

xiii; 
conditions  in,  175  and  £f. 
Prauenwohl  (magazine),  150. 
"Frederika  Bremer  League,"  106. 
French  Revolution,  and  the  wom- 
an's rights   movement,    175- 

178. 
French  Woman's  Suffrage  Society, 

the,  189. 
Fries,  Ellen,  107. 
"Fronde,"  the,  188. 

Galicia,  conditions  in,  232-235. 
Galinda,  Donna,  208. 
Gammond,  Madame  Gatti  de,  193. 
Garfield,  President,  15. 


Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  6. 
Geneva,  University  of,  29. 
German    Austria,    conditions    in, 

158  and  ff. 
German      Evangelical      Woman's 

League,  154. 
Germanic       countries,       modern 

woman's  rights  movement  in, 

1-174. 
Germany, 
represented   in  the  International 

Woman's     Suffrage    Alliance, 

xiii. 
conditions  in,  143-145. 
Gikycki,  Lily  v.,  151. 
Girton  College,  75. 
Goldmann,  (Mrs.)  Dr.,  166. 
Goldschmidt,  Henrietta,  145,  146. 
Goldstein,  Vida,  49,  note  i,  54,  56. 
Gore-Langton,  Lady  Anne,  62. 
Gouges,  Olympe  de,  176,  177. 
Great  Britain, 
represented  in  the  International 

Woman's     Suffrage    Alliance, 

xiii. 
conditions  in,  58  and  ff. 
Greece,  conditions  in,  242-244. 
Grimke,  Angelina,  5. 
Group  of  Women  Students,  the,  in 

France,  182,  183. 
Gruber,  Dr.  Ludwig,  172. 
Gyulai,  P.,  170. 

Hainisch,  Marianne,  166. 
Hansteen,  Aasta,  117. 
Harem,  245. 

Harper,  Ida  Hasted,  23,  note  3. 
Harvard  University,  24. 
Hayden,  Sophia,  29. 
Hayes,  President,  15. 
Hein,  Frau  Dr.,  136. 
Helenius,  Trigg,  116. 
Hcrtzka,  Mrs.  Jeila,  166. 
Herzegovina,  conditions  in,  250. 
Hcrzfelder,  Miss,  166. 
Heymann,  Mi.ss,  151. 
Hickcl,  Rosina,  iii. 


272 


INDEX 


Higinbotham,  George,  50. 
Hill,  Octavia,  gi. 

Hirsch-Duncker  Trades  Union,  153. 
History  of  Woman's  Suffrage,   by 

Harper     and     Anthony,     23, 

note  I. 
referred  to,  37. 
HoUoway  College,  75,  83. 
House     of     Commons,      attitude 

toward  woman's  suffrage,  65. 
Housmann,  Lawrence,  69. 
Hungarian  Woman's  Club,  170. 
Hungary, 
represented  in  the  International 

Woman's     Suffrage    Alliance, 

xiii. 
conditions  in,  169  and  ff. 
Hutchins,  Mrs.  B.  L.,  92. 

Ibsen,  no,  117,  123. 
Iceland,    represented    in    the    In- 
ternational Woman's  SuSrage 
Alliance,  xiii. 
Idaho, 

woman's  suffrage  in,  i6. 
activities  and  influence  of  women 

in,  20,  21. 
estabUshes  lectureship  in  domes- 
tic science,  27. 
condition  of  women  and  children 
in,  39,  40. 
Illinois, 
and  woman's  suffrage,  6,  21. 
women  jurors  in,  28. 
India,  conditions  in,  252-255. 
Indian  Ladies'  Magazine,  255. 
Inspectors  of   schools,  see   School 

inspectors  (women). 
Institute  de  demoiselles,  217. 
International  Council  of  Women, 

x-xii. 
International    Federation    for    the 
Abolition  of  the  OflScial  Regu- 
lation of  Prostitution, 
headquarters  of,  140. 
Austrian  branch  of,  166. 
Hungarian  branch  of,  172. 


Italian  branch  of,  204,  205. 
Polish  branch  of,  235. 
International  Vigilance  Society,i72. 
International    Woman's    Suffrage 
Alliance,    the,    various    facts 
concerning,  x,  xii,  xiii. 
lonades.  Miss,  244. 
Iowa,  21. 

Ireland,  68 ;  see  Great  Britain. 
Isle  of  Man,  63. 
Italy, 
represented  in  the  International 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  196-199. 

Jackson,  Miss,  32. 
Jacobs,  Dr.  Aletta,  130. 
Japan,  conditions  in,  260-262. 
Java,  woman's  suffrage  society  in, 

132. 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  24. 
Jones,  Miss,  29,  30. 
Journalists,  women, 

in  the  United  States,  28. 

in  Great  Britain,  81. 

in  Spain,  209. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 
July  Revolution  (1830),  180. 
Juvenile  courts, 

in  Australia,  54. 

advocated  in  Germany,  155. 

Kalapothaki,  Marie,  243. 
Kang  You  Wei,  258. 
Kansas, 

municipal  woman's  suffrage  in, 
16,  20. 

efforts  of  women  of,  to  secure  full 
suffrage  rights,  21. 
Kapnist,  Mrs.  v.,  244. 
Keller,  Helen,  27. 
Kelly,  Abby,  4,  5. 
Kenney,  Annie,  66. 
Kerschbaumer,  Dr.,  160,  161. 
Kettler,  Mrs.,  146. 
Key,  Ellen,  107,  108. 


INDEX 


273 


Kingsley,  63. 

Koran,  248,  251. 

Korea,  conditions  in,  262,  263. 

Kowalewska,  Sonja,  107,  224. 

Krajevska,  Feodora,  251. 

Kronau  wetter,  167. 

Kutschalska-Reinschmidt,      Mrs., 

234,  235- 
Kveder,  Zofka,  235,  236. 

Labriola,  Theresa,  201. 

La  FratiQaise,  189. 

Lang,  Helena,  146. 

Lang,  Maria,  166. 

Lascaridis,  Miss,  244. 

Lawrence,    Mr.    Pethick,    66,    74, 

note  I,  92,  note  i. 
Lawrence,  Mrs.,  Pethick,  66. 
Laws  protecting  women  and  chil- 
dren, 

in  the  United  States,  39,  40. 

in  Australia,  48,  52-54. 

in  Great  Britain,  86,  87. 

in  Finland,  115. 

in  Norway,  121,  122. 

in  Switzerland,  138,  140,  141. 

in  Germany,  154. 

lack  of,  in  France,  179. 
Lawyers,  women, 

in  the  United  States,  27. 

in  Australia,  54. 

absence  of,  in  Great  Britain,  77. 

in  Canada,  97. 

in  Sweden,  107. 

in  Finland,  112. 

in  Norway,  121. 

in  Switzerland,  136. 

in  Germany,  148. 

in  German  Austria,  i6r, 

in  France,  185. 

in  Belgium,  192. 

in  India,  253,  254. 
League    for    Freedom    of    Labor 

Defense,  86. 
Lee,  Mrs.  Mary,  53. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  15. 
Lindsey,  Judge,  18. 


Lischnewska,  Maria,  146. 

Listrow,  Mrs.  v.,  166. 

Local  Self-government  Act  for 
England   and   Wales,   72. 

Loeper-Houselle,  Marie,  146. 

London,  xiii,  61,  81. 

London,  University  of,  77. 

London  College  for  Working- 
women,  89,  90. 

London  Girls'  Club  Union  Maga- 
zine, 90. 

Lords,  House  of,  72. 

Losa,  Isabella,  208. 

Luxemburg,  conditions  in,  157. 

McCuUock,  Mrs.  C.  Waugh,  39. 

McGee,  Miss,  29,  note  i. 

Mackenroth,  Miss  Anna,  136. 

MacLaren,  Agnes,  204. 

MacLaren,  63,  96,  note  i. 

Maclay,  A.  v.,  173. 

Madame  Mere,  178. 

Mahrenholtz-Biilow,  Countess, 
127. 

Maine,  21. 

Maireder,  Rosa,  166. 

Malinoff,  Mrs.,  241. 

Manchester,  61,  62. 

Mariani,  Emilia,  203. 

Mario,  Jessie  White,  202. 

Massachusetts,  21. 

Meath,   Countess  of,   82. 

Men's  League  for  Woman's  Suf- 
frage, 68. 

Men's  League  Opposing  Woman's 
Suffrage,  68. 

Mericourt,  Th^roignc  de,  177. 

Mexico,  conditions  in,  212,  213. 

Meyer,  Mr.  Julius,  150. 

Michel,  Louise,  180. 

Mill.  John   Stuart,  60,  61,   123. 

Miller,  I'auia,  154. 

Minnesota,  21. 

Mohammedan  countries,  see  Tur- 
key, Kgypt,  Persia,  Bosnia, 
and  HcrzcRovina. 

Monod,  Miss  Sara,  188. 


274 


INDEX 


Montessori,  Maria,  201. 

Monti,  Rina,  201. 

Moravia,  conditions  in,  230-232. 

Morgenstern,  Lina,  145,  152. 

Morsier,  Emile  de,  190. 

Mothers,  school  for,  94,  95. 

Mothers'  congresses,  in  the  United 

States,  20,  note  i. 
Mott,  Lucretia,  5,  6. 
Miinsterberg,  Deputy,  156. 
Mystery  of  Woman,  The,  236. 

Napoleon,  178,  179. 

Napoleonic  Code,  see  Code  Na- 
poleon. 

National  American  Woman's 
Suffrage  Association,  22,  42, 
note  I. 

National  Anti-slavery   Society,   6. 

National  Child  Labor  Committee, 

as- 
National  Council,  3d,  xii. 

National  Council  of  French 
Women,  189. 

National  Council  of  Women  (in 
Austraha),   47,  note   r. 

National  Trades  Union  League,  10. 

National  Union  of  Woman's  Suf- 
frage Societies,  64. 

National  Woman's  Antisuffrage 
Association,  68. 

National  Woman's  Social  and  Po- 
litical Union,  64. 

Nebraska,  16,  21. 

Netherlands,    the, 

represented  in  the  International 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  126. 

New  Hampshire,  21. 

Newnham  College,  75. 

New  York,  21. 

New  Zealand,  42,  note  2 ;  see 
Australia. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  91. 

Night  labor,  of  women,  in  the 
United  States,  36. 


North  America,  the  cradle  of  the 
woman's  rights  movement,  2. 

Northern  states  (of  the  United 
States),  35. 

Oberlin  College,  24. 

Ohio,  27. 

Oklahoma,  21,  and  note  2. 

Olga,  Queen  of  Greece,  243. 

Oregon,  outlook  for  woman's  suf- 
frage in,  16. 
woman's     suffrage     amendment 
(19 10)  defeated  in,  16,  note  2; 
22,  note  2. 
opposition  to  woman's  suffrage 

in,  22. 
failure  of  woman's  suffrage  cam- 
paign (1906)  in,  22. 

Orient,  the,  conditions  in,  245-265. 

Otto-Peters,  Louise,  145. 

Oxford  University,  75,  76. 

Panajuta,  Miss,  244. 

Pankhurst,  Miss,  66. 

Pankhurst,  Mrs.,  66. 

Pappritz,  Anna,  151. 

Parent,  Mrs.,  192. 

Parental  authority,  see  Children, 
authority  over. 

Parliament, 

act  of,  bearing  on  woman's  suf- 
frage, 62. 
obligation  of  members  of,  to  the 
woman's  suffrage  movement, 
6s. 
women  deputations  and,  66,  67. 

Parren,  Madame  Killirhoe,  243, 
244. 

Parsee  women,  255. 

Patents,  taken  out  by  women  in 
the  United  States,   30. 

Paterson,  Mrs.,  85. 

Paulus,  Erica,  171. 

Pavlovna,  Helene,  218. 

Pease,  Elizabeth,  5,  6. 

Pennsylvania,  21,  27. 

Perhaps  (pamphlet),  42. 


INDEX 


275 


Pemerstorfer,  167. 

Persia,  conditions  in,  251,  252. 

Peter  the  Great,  217. 

Petzold,  Miss  v.,  78. 

Philosophow,  Mrs.  v.,  228,  229. 

"Physical    Force    Fallacy,   The," 

69. 
Poet,  Laidi,  201. 
Police    matrons,    in    the    United 

States,  37. 
Political     Equality     League,     in 

Australia,  55. 
Political    Equality    League    (Chi- 
cago), 40. 
"Political    Equality    Series,"    12, 

33- 
Popelin,  Miss  Marie,  192. 
Popp,  Mrs.,  166. 
Pornography, 

prohibited  in  woman's  suffrage 
states  of  the  United  States,  40. 

suppressed  in  Australia,  54. 
Portland,  27. 

Portugal,  conditions  in,  211,  212. 
Posada,  Professor,  207,  208. 
Possauer,  Dr.,  161. 
Poster,  F.  Laurie,  40. 
Preachers,  women, 

in  the  United  States,  28. 

in  Australia,  46. 

in  Great  Britain,  78. 

in  Canada,  97. 

in  Sweden,  104,  107. 

in  the  Netherlands,  128. 

in  German  Austria,  161. 

in  France,  185. 
"Primrose  League,"  63. 
Prohibition  movement, 

in  Sweden,  109,  no. 

in  Finland,  116. 
Progress,  42. 
Prostitution,  laws  concerning, 

in  the  United  States,  37. 

in  woman's  suffrage  states,  39. 

in  England,  95. 

in  Finland,  115,  116. 

in  Norway,  117. 


in  Denmark,  126. 

in  Switzerland,  140. 

in  Germany,  144,  155,  156. 

in  German  Austria,  165,  166. 

in  Hungary,  172. 

in  France,  190. 

in  Italy,  204,  205. 

in  Galicia,  234. 

in  Servia,  238. 

in  India,  254,  note  i. 
Purischkewitch,  Mr.,  229. 
Putnam,  Mary,  77. 

Quakers,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
Qualification  of  Women  Act,   72. 
Qvam,  Mrs.,  121. 

Ramabai,  Pundita,  255. 

Red  Cross  Society,  91,  261. 

Refia,  Princess,  250. 

Rhode  Island,  21. 

Richer,  Leon,  180. 

Riza,  Selma,  247. 

Robin,  E.,  67,  note  i. 

Roland,  Henrietta,  130. 

Roland,  Madame,  177. 

Romance  countries,  conditions  in, 

175- 
Rookwood  pottery,  30. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore, 

and   woman's   suffrage,    15. 
calls  "Conference  on  the   Care 
of    Dependent  Children,"   18, 
note  I. 
involved   in  conflict  with  Amer- 
ican women,  34. 
Rose,  Ernestine,  8. 
Rosores,  Isabel  dc,  208. 
Rumania,   conditions  in,   242-244. 
Runeburg,    Frcdcrika,    no. 
Rural  Woman's  Industrial  Society, 

171. 
Russia, 

represented   in  the  International 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  215  and  ff. 


276 


INDEX 


Saint  Simonians,  180. 
Salaries,   women's  compared  with 
men's, 

in  the  United  States,  25  and 
note  I,  31. 

in  woman's  suffrage  states,  39. 

in  Australia,  46,  47,  55. 

in  Great  Britain,  78-80,  85. 

in  Canada,  97. 

in  Sweden,  105,  107,  108. 

in  Norway,  118,  119. 

in  the  Netherlands,  128. 

in  Switzerland,  135. 

in  Germany,  147. 

in  German  Austria,  159. 

in  France,  184. 

in  Portugal,  212. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 
Salic  Law,  absence  of, 

in  Australia,  44. 

in  England,  58. 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  21. 
Sand,  George,  180. 
Sandhurst,  Lady,  71. 
Scandinavian  countries,  conditions 

in,  102,  103. 
Schabanoff,  Mrs.,  228. 
SchifF,  Paoline,  203. 
Schirmacher,  Dr.,  151. 
Schlesinger,  Mrs.,  166. 
Schmall,  Madame,  189. 
Schmidt,  Augusta,  145,  146. 
School    inspectors,    women, 

appointment  of,  agitated  in  the 
United  States,  27. 

in  Great  Britain,  79. 

in  France,  185. 
Schiitze,  E.,  229. 
Schwerin,  Jeanette,  151. 
Schwietland,  Mrs.,  166. 
Scotland,  68;   see  also  Great  Brit- 
ain. 
Seddon,  Mrs.,  51,  52. 
Servia, 

represented  in  the  Interna- 
tional Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance,  xiii. 


conditions  in,  236,  239. 
S^vign6,   Madame  de,   178. 
Sewall,  Mrs.  Wright,  xi,  note  i. 
Sex,  the  sexes, 
relationship   of   the   sexes,   xiv. 
woman's  use  of  her  sex,   as  a 
weapon,  40-42. 
Shaw,  Rev.  Anna  Howard, 

challenges      Mrs.       Humphrey 

Ward,  18. 
Denver  elections  investigated  by, 

18. 
president      of      the      National 
Woman's  Suffrage  Association, 
22. 
a  woman's  rights  advocate  with 

theological  training,  28. 
on  the  legal  status  of  woman, 
36,  37- 
Sheldon,  Mrs.  French,   80. 
Siam,  255,  note  i. 
Sie,  Tou  Fa,  259. 
Silberstein,  Mr.,  150. 
Simcox,  Miss,  85. 
Simpson,  Mrs.  Anna,  192. 
Sin,  Miss  Peng  Sie,  258. 
Slavic    countries,    conditions    in, 

215  and  ff. 
Sloane  Garden  Houses,  81. 
Slovene  woman's  rights  movement, 

23s.  236. 
Slovenka,  236. 

"Social  Purity  League,"  37,  38. 
Social  secretaries,  35. 
Society  for  Jewish  Women,  154. 
Society  for  the  Amelioration  of  the 
Condition  of  Woman  and  for 
Demanding  Woman's  Rights, 
180. 
Soho  Club  and  Home  for  Working 

Girls,  90. 
Somersville  Hall,  75. 
Sorabija,  Cornelia,  254. 
South   Africa, 

represented  in  the  International 
Woman's  Suffrage  Alliance,xiii. 
conditions  in,  100,  loi. 


INDEX 


277 


South  America,  conditions  in,  213, 

214. 
South  Dakota,  16  and  note  2,  21. 
Southern  States,  conditions  in,  35. 
Spain,  conditions  in,  206,  207. 
Sprung,  Mrs.  v.,  166. 
Stael,  Madame  de,  177,  178. 
Stanley,  Hon.  Maude,  90. 
Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady, 
refused  admission  to  anti-slavery 

congress,  s,  6. 
introduces  woman's  suffrage  res- 
olution, 7. 
Steyber,  Ottilie  v.,  145. 
Stone,  Lucy,  5,  24. 
Stopes,  Mrs.  C.  C,  62,  note  i. 
Strindberg,  no. 
Stritt,  Mrs.,  151. 
Styria,  see  Slovene  woman's  rights 

movement. 
Suffragettes,  English, 
influence  of,  in  the  United  States, 

21. 
importance  of,  58. 
tactics,  influence,  and  activities 

of,  65-70. 
support  given  to,  69. 
Suslowa,  Miss,  221. 
Suttner,  Bertha  v.,  169. 
Swain,  Dr.  Clara,  253. 
Sweden, 

represented  in  the  International 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  103-110. 
Switzerland, 

represented  in  the  International 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance, 
xiii. 
conditions  in,  133-134. 

Tasmania,  see  Australia. 
Teachers,  women, 

in  the  United  States,  25. 

in  Australia,  46,   47. 

in  Great  Britain,  76,  8x. 

in  Sweden,    104,    106,   107. 


in  Finland,  iii. 

in  Norway,  118,  119, 

in  Denmark,  123. 

in  the  Netherlands,  128. 

in  Switzerland,  135. 

in  Germany,  147. 

in  German  Austria,  161,  162. 

in  Hungary,  174. 

in  France,  184. 

in  Italy,  200,  201. 

in  Spain,  207,  208. 

in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
212,  213. 

in  Russia,  221,  222. 

in  Galicia,  234. 

in  Servia,  237. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 

in  Persia,  251,  252. 
Terem,  217. 
T6ry,  Audr^e,  195. 
Tessel    Benefit    Society    (Schade- 

verein),  129. 
Thorbecke,  Minister,  138. 
Tilmans,  Madame,  194. 
Tod,  63. 
Trade-unions,  women  in, 

in  the  United  States,  32,  33. 

in  Great  Britain,  84-88. 

in  Sweden,  108. 

in  Finland,  112. 

in  Norway,  122. 

in  the  Netherlands,  129,  130. 

in  Switzerland,  137. 

in  Germany,  150,  153,  154. 

in  German  Austria,  159, 160, 164, 
its. 

in  France,  185,  186. 

in  Belgium,  193. 

in  Italy,  203,  204. 

in  Russia,  222,  225. 

in  the  Slovene  countries,  236. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 
Trinity  College,  76. 
Troy  Seminary,  34. 
Tsin  King,  258. 
Tumova,  Miss,  232. 
Turkey,  coaditioos  in,  245-250. 


278 


INDEX 


Tunnarkin,  Dr.  Anna,  135,  136. 
Tuszla,  Dolna,  251. 

United  States, 

Represented  in  the  International 

Woman's    Suffrage     Alliance, 

xii,  xiii. 
conditions  in,  2-42. 
See  also  American  Women. 
United  States,  Constitution  of, 
leaves   suffrage   matters   to   the 

various  states,  3. 
not  opposed  to  woman's  suffrage, 

ID. 

preamble  to,  10. 
United  States,  women  in, 

leaders     in     modern     woman's 

rights  movement,  x. 
oppose  slavery,  4. 
attitude  toward  negro  suffrage,  9. 
methods  of  obtaining  the  fran- 
chise, 13-15. 
Universities,  state,  in  the  United 

States,  26. 
Utah, 

woman's  suffrage  in,  16. 
work  of  women  in,  19. 
condition  of    women  and    chil- 
dren in,  39,  40. 

Vamb6ry,  Professor,  172. 

Vandervelde,  Madame,  193. 

Vassar  College,  24. 

Veres,  Mrs.  v.,  169. 

Victoria,  represented  in  the  Inter- 
national Woman's  Suffrage 
Alliance,  xii ;  see  also  Australia. 

Vooruit,  194. 

Vorst,  Mrs.  v.,  her  book  referred 
to,  31,  35- 

Vos,  Roosjc,  130. 

Votes  for  Women,  English  woman's 
suffrage  organ,  referred  to,  62, 
note  I,  66,  69. 

Wachtmeister,  Countess,  52. 
Wales,  see  Great  Britain. 


Wallis,  Professor,  105. 
War  of  Independence  (1774-1783), 
relation  of,  to  woman's  rights 
movement,  2. 
Ward,  Mrs.  Humphry, 
opposed  to  woman's  suffrage,  18. 
in  debate,  69. 
Warren,  Ohio,  42. 
Warwick,  Lady,  83. 
Washington,     State    of,    woman's 
suffrage  secured  in,  16,  note  i, 
21,  22,  and  note  i. 
Webb,  Mrs.  Sidney,  69. 
Wenckheim,  Baroness,  172, 
Wendt,  Dr.  Cecilia,  163. 
West  Australia,  see  Australia. 
White  slave  trade, 
in  Australia,  54. 
in  Hungary,  172. 
Why  does  the  Working-woman  need 
the    Right    to     Vote?     (pam- 
phlet), 33. 
Willard,  Frances  E.,  38. 
Wisconsin,  21. 
Wolfring,  v.,  166. 
WoUstonecraft,  Mary,  176. 
Woman's    Cooperative    Gild,    93, 

94. 
Woman's   Equal  Suffrage  League 

(Natal),  100. 
Woman's  Freedom  League,  68. 
Woman's  Industrial  Society,   159. 
Woman's  Institute,  80. 
Woman's  Journal,  34,  35. 
Woman's    rights    movement,    the 
modern, 
definition,  leadership  in,  origins, 

ix,  X. 
international  organization  of,  xi, 

xii. 
chief  demands  of,  xiii,  xiv. 
characteristics,  in  Germanic  and 
Romance  countries  compared, 
I,  2. 
in    Germanic-Protestant    coun- 
tries, I,  2. 
the  cradle  of,  2, 


INDEX 


279 


Woman's    rights    movement,    the 
modern, 
and  .\merican  War  of  Independ- 
ence, 2. 
character    of,     in    the    United 

States,  4  and  ff. 
in  Australia,  42  and  flE. 
in  Great  Britain,  58  and  ff. 
in  Canada,  96  and  ff. 
in  South  Africa,  100  and  ff. 
in   the    Scandinavian   countries, 

103  and  ff. 
in  the  Netherlands  126  and  ff. 
in  Switzerland,   133  and  ff. 
in  Germany,  144  and  ff. 
in  German  Austria,  158  and  ff. 
in  Europe,  175. 
in  France,  176  and  ff. 
in  Belgium,  191  and  ff. 
in  Italy,  199  and  ff. 
in  Spain,  210,  211. 
in  South  America,  214. 
in  Russia,  215  and  ff. 
in  Bohemia,  230-232. 
in  Servia,  236-239. 
in  Bulgaria,  240-242. 
in  Turkey  and  Egypt,  247-250. 
in  Persia,  251. 
in  India,  252-255. 
in  China,  258-260. 
in  Japan,  262. 
in  Korea,  263. 

See  also  Woman's  suffrage  move- 
ment. 
Woman's  Rights  Movement  (periodi- 
cal), 20,  21. 
Woman's    Suffrage    Alliance,    see 
International    Woman's    Suf- 
frage Alliance. 
Woman's     Sujfrage     in     Australia 

(pamphlet),  56. 
Woman's  Suffrage  in  New  Zealand, 

(pamphlet),  56. 
Woman's  suffrage  movement, 
organized     internationally,     xii, 

xiii. 
in  the  United  States,  2-23. 


n  Australia,  49-58. 

n  England,  58-74. 

n  Canada,  98,  99. 

n  South  Africa,  100,  loi. 

n  Sweden,  104,  108,  109. 

n  Finland,  114-116. 

n  Norway,  119-121. 

n  Denmark,  124,  125. 

n  Iceland,  125. 

n  the  Netherlands,  130-133. 

n  Switzerland,    141-143. 

n  Germany,  153-157- 

n  German  Austria,  166-169. 

n  Hungary,  172,  173. 

n  France,  188  and  ff. 

n  Belgium,  194,  195. 

in  Italy,  202  and  ff. 

n  Russia,  227-229. 

n   Czechish  Bohemia  and   Mo- 
ravia, 231,  232. 

in  Japan,  262. 
Woman's  suffrage  states   (United 
States), 

and  educational   matters,    27. 

women  jurors  in,  28. 

laws  concerning  women  and 
children  in,  39,  40. 
Women,  sec  also  Agriculturists, 
American  women,  Coeduca- 
tion, Divorce  laws,  Doctors, 
Children  (authority  over), 
Education,  Factory  inspectors. 
Journalists,  Laws  protecting 
women  and  children,  Lawyers, 
Patents,  Preachers,  Salaries, 
Sex,  Teachers,  Trade-unions, 
Working-day. 
Women  in  the  professions  and  the 
industries, 

in  the  United  States,  25-36. 

in  Australia,  46-48. 

in  Great  Britain,  77-95. 

in  Canada,  97. 

in  Sweden,  104-108. 

in  Finland,  1 1  i-i  13. 

in  Norway,  1 17-121. 

in  Denmark,  123-124. 


28o 


INDEX 


Women  in  the  professions  and  the 
industries, 
in  the  Netherlands,  128-131. 
in  Switzerland,  135-139. 
in  Germany,  147-150. 
in  Luxemburg,  157,  158. 
in  Hungary,  1 71-174. 
in  France,  185-187. 
in  Belgium,  193. 
in  Italy,  200-204. 
in  Portugal,  212. 
in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 

212,  213. 

in  South  America,  214. 
in  Russia,  220-226. 
in  Czechish  Bohemia  and   Mo- 
ravia, 230,  231. 
in  Galicia,  232,  233,  235. 
in  the  Slovene  countries,  236. 
in  Servia,  237,  238. 
in  Greece,  243,  244. 
in  Persia,  251,  252. 
in  Japan,  261,  262. 
Women,    legal   status   of, 
in  the  United  States,  36,  37. 
in  Australia,  49. 
in  England,  73,  74. 
in  Canada,  97,  98. 
in  Sweden,  105,  106. 
in  Finland,  113. 
in  Denmark,  122,  123,  124. 
in  the  Netherlands,  126,  127. 
in  Switzerland,  140. 
in  Germany,  155. 
in  German  Austria,  168,  169. 
in  France,  178,  179,  182. 
in  Belgium,  191. 
in  Italy,  202. 
in  Spain,  210. 
in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 

213.  _ 

in  Russia,  226,  227. 

in  Servia,  239. 

in  Bulgaria,  240. 

according  to  the  Koran,  248. 

in  China,  256,  257. 


Women's  Charter  of  Rights  and 

Liberties,  the,  96,  note  i. 
Women's    clubs,     see    under    the 
Woman's  rights  movement  of 
the  various  countries. 
Women's  colleges, 
in  the  United  States,  24. 
in  Great  Britain,  75-77. 
Women's  Enfranchisement  League 

(in    Cape    Colony),    loi. 
Women's  Franchise,  the  Need  of  the 

Hour,  70,  note  i. 
Women's  Liberal  Federation,   63. 
Working-day  for  women, 
in  the  United  States,  35. 
in  woman's  suffrage  states,  39. 
in  Australia,  48. 
in  Switzerland,  139. 
in  Germany,  154. 
in  Italy,  203. 
Workingwoman's   movement,    not 
antagonistic  to  woman's  rights 
movement,  x. 
World's  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union, 
formation  of,  x. 
facts  concerning,  38. 
advocates  woman's  suffrage,  38. 
Worm,  Pauline,  122. 
Writers'  League,  68. 
Wu,  Fang  Lan,  258. 
Wyoming, 

woman's  suffrage  in,  16. 
elections  in,  20. 

legal   status  of    women    in,  39, 
40. 

Yale  University,  24. 

Young  Turkish  Woman's  League, 

249,  250. 
Young   Turk    movement,    women 

and,  248,  249. 

Zenana,  250,  253. 
Zetkin,  Clara,  152. 


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tained in  Miss  Addams's  chapter  on  '  Political  Reform.'  .  .  .  The  same 
thing  may  be  said  of  the  book  in  regard  to  the  presentation  of  social  and 
economic  facts."  —  Review  0/ Reviews. 

"The  book  is  startling,  stimulating,  and  intelligent."  —  Philadelphia 
Ledger. 


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An  Unusually  Interesting  Book 


The  Book  of  Womans  Power 

With  an  Introduction  by  IDA  M.  TARBELL 

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Woman's  Power '  will  make  a  particular  appeal  to  all  interested  in  that 
subject."  —  OAio  State  Journal. 

"  It  is  a  well-made  book;  the  purpose  of  it  is  uplifting,  and  the  con- 
tents are  certainly  of  the  highest  class.  It  is  a  book  good  to  read,  and 
full  of  instruction  for  every  one  who  wishes  to  pursue  this  theme."  — 
Salt  Lake  Tribune. 


Miss   MOLLY   ELLIOT   SEA  WELL'S 
The  Ladies*  Battle 

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"  Her  reasoning  is  clear  and  the  arguments  she  presents  are  forcibly 
put  ...  a  racy  little  book,  logical  and  convincing."  —  Boston  Globe. 

"  The  book  is  one  which  every  woman,  whatever  her  views,  ought  to 
read.     It  has  no  dull  pages."  —  Record-Herald,  Chicago. 

"  Miss  Seawell  treats  a  subject  of  universal  interest  soberly  and  in- 
telligently.   She  deserves  to  be  widely  read."  —  Boston  Daily  Advertiser. 

"  The  clearest  and  the  most  thorough  little  treatise  on  the  theme  of 
woman  suffrage." —  Chicago  Inter-Ocean, 


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Wage-Earning  Women 

By  ANNIE    MARION    MacLEAN 

Professor  of  Sociology  in  Adelphi  College. 

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"  The  chapters  give  glimpses  of  women  wage-earners  as  they  toil  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  author  visited  the  shoeshops,  and 
the  paper,  cotton,  and  woollen  mills  of  New  England,  the  department 
stores  of  Chicago,  the  garment-makers'  homes  in  New  York,  the  silk 
mills  and  potteries  of  New  Jersey,  the  fruit  farms  of  California,  the  coal 
fields  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  hop  industries  of  Oregon.  The  author 
calls  for  legislation  regardless  of  constitutional  quibble,  for  a  shorter 
work-day,  a  higher  wage,  the  establishment  of  residential  clubs,  the 
closer  cooperation  between  existing  organizations  for  industrial  better- 
ment."—  Bos/on  Advertiser . 

Making  Both  Ends  Meet  :    The  Income  and 
Outlay  of  New  York   Working  Girls 

By   SUE   AINSLIE   CLARK   and   EDITH 
WYATT 

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ground  down  by  overwork,  lack  of  home  comfort  and  of  recreation. 
So  powerful  are  the  facts  presented  that  the  very  simplicity  of  their  nar- 
ration rouses  the  reader  to-  the  desperate  need  of  safeguarding  the  girl 
workers  in  our  cities  against  exhausting  mental  and  physical  demands." 
—  Continent. 

"The  point  of  view  of  the  book  is  constructive  throughout,  and  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  it  will  be  for  a  long  time,  both  for  the  practical  worker 
and  for  the  scientific  student,  the  authoritative  work  in  this  field."  — 
Detroit  News, 

"  It  is  a  recital  of  facts  that  makes  one's  heart  and  soul  shrink  up  and 
grow  small  for  pity  and  helplessness  to  help."  —  Lexington  Herald. 


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Some  Ethical  Gains  through  Legislation 

By  FLORENCE    KELLEY 

Secretary  of  the  National  Consumers'  League. 

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This  interesting  volume  has  grown  out  of  the  author's  experience 
in  philanthropic  work  in  Chicago  and  New  York,  and  her  service 
for  the  State  of  Illinois  and  for  the  Federal  Government  in  investi- 
gating the  circumstances  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  conditions  in 
various  trades. 

The  value  of  the  work  lies  in  information  gathered  at  close  range 
in  a  long  association  with,  and  effort  to  improve  the  condition  of, 
the  very  poor. 

The  author  is  not  only  a  lawyer  of  large  experience  in  Chicago, 
but  has  served  that  city,  the  State  of  Illinois,  and  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment in  many  investigations  of  conditions  among  various  trades, 
and  in  reference  to  the  circumstances  of  the  poorer  classes. 

Among  the  topics  here  treated  are : 

The  Right  to  Childhood. 

Interpretations  of  the  Right  to  Leisure. 

The  Right  of  Women  to  the  Ballot. 

The  Rights  of  Purchasers  and  the  Courts. 


The  Women  of  America 

By  ELIZABETH    McCRACKEN 

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"  A  work  the  immediate  need  of  which  is  felt  everywhere.  It  treats  of 
the  American  woman's  economic  condition  and  of  women  workers  in 
various  fields.  It  can  be  recommended  to  every  one  who  is  interested 
in  the  grave  problems  involved  by  the  new  and  untoward  conditions  of 
women's  work."  —  N.  Y.  Evening  Sun. 


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THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


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